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3 



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8 



EXPOSITION 



GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



BEING AN ATTEMPT TO EUENISH 



AN IMPROVED METHOB OF TEACHING 
GRAMMAR. 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AISB COLLEGES. 



JOHN MULLIGAN, A.M. 



NEW-YORK: 

D. AFPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY, 

AND 16 LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON. 



^£llll 

1^^ 



^ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1853, hj 

JOHN MULLIGAN, A.M. 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 

Southern District of New- York. 



JOHN. F. TKo ... 
49 Ann-Street 



PREFACE 



In the following treatise, we liave adopted a plan of 
arrangement entirely different from that of preceding gram- 
marians; and w^e trust that, to all judicious teachers, this 
innovation will appear an improvement. We commence by 
calling the attention of the student to the purposes served by 
language, the facts which render grammatical contrivances 
necessary in language, to the formation of propositions to 
"convey our thoughts ; — all subjects useful and important, 
independent of the design with which w^e introduce them. 
Our statements in reference to these points can be readily 
comprehended by every student, of average capacity and 
average application. Having thus established a mutual un- 
derstanding with the student, as regards the nature of our 
subject and the purposes which we have in view, we endeavor 
to maintain this common understanding, and a rational ac- 
quiescence in the correctness of our deductions unimpaired 
through the whole treatise, by carefully guarding against 
taking any step in advance which he cannot readily follow. 
We thus hope to secure through the whole course, a clear 
perception of the practical utility of what is already ex- 
plained, and adequate preparation (if not awakened desire) 
for the further prosecution of the inquiry. By pursuing this 
method, the student will feel conscious at every step that he 
has made sensible progress in the acquisition of a knowledge 



PREFACE. 



of the structure of language, and that even if he were to 
suspend his studies at this step, his labor in attempting to 
learn grammar would not be entirely lost. We need not 
advert to the manifest defects of the old methods of gram- 
matical instruction in these respects. 

We shall not dwell in this place on the other peculiarities 
which distinguish the following treatise. These peculiarities 
cannot be advantageously described or defended in a preface. 
They can be best seen and best appreciated in the regular 
perusal of the work. We may possibly, hereafter, find an 
opportunity of examining the defects of the old systems of 
grammatical instruction, and of explaining and defending our 
own views, more fully than we have been able to do in the 
notes interspersed through this volume. Manifest proofs are 
exhibited, in the complaints of teachers and grammarians, 
that the friends of education are sensible of the defects of our 
old systems, and ardently desire a reformation. And, in this 
connection, we feel pleasure in acknowledging that much has 
been done by the efforts of our immediate predecessors to in- 
troduce, and to prepare the way for the reception of an 
improved method of grammatical instruction. 

The importance of a thorough reformation of the method 
of teaching grammar to the general intellectual progress of 
the age, can scarcely be over-estimated. We may form some 
notion of this importance, if we reflect that this science not 
only lays (or, at least, should lay) the foundation of all sound 
loD^ic and all true eloquence — has the closest connection with 
correct thinking, as well as with the correct transmission of 
the products of thought from mind to mind — but serves as a 
natural and indispensable introduction to our courses of in- 
tellectual training, and the first step in a philosophical 
education. (How much may the future success of the young 
student depend, on the manner in which this first step is 
taken ?) Besides this, a thorough knowledge of grammar is 
the great preparation for the easy and correct acquisition of 



PREFACE. 



ancient and modern languages, enabling us witli greatly 
diminished labor to comprehend clearly the laws of their 
structure, and fix these laws indelibly in our memory for 
ready recollection. 

After what we have already said, we need not assure the 
intelligent reader, who may do us the favor of perusing our 
treatise regularly from the commencement, that he can find 
no difficulty in following our steps. But, looking to the 
nature of the subject, and to the method of treating it which 
we have adopted, and to some necessary innovation (we have 
studiously avoided all unnecessary innovation) in the use of 
terms, (fee, we deprecate all attempts to take up our treatise 
in the middle, or to pronounce judgment on a part without a 
complete knowledge of our whole system. 

We have expended much labor in adapting this book to 
the purpose of giving instruction to classes. With this end 
in view, we have prepared a course of questions, placed for 
the greater convenience of the teacher and student at the foot 
of the page ; and we have secured a ready reference, by 
numbers, to the part of the text in which the answers are 
found. For the same purpose a series of exercises is pre- 
scribed, consisting chiefly of written examples (to be furnished 
by the student) of the forms of construction treated in each 
section. We think this kind of exercise better suited than 
any other to secure the rapid progress of pupils in acquiring 
a knowledge of the principles of grammar, and at the same 
time (what is one of the most valuable literary accomplish- 
ments) experience in the correct construction of sentences. 
We trust that the pains taken to accommodate the book to 
the practical purposes of instruction will be appreciated by 
intelligent teachers. 

It will be observed that the arrangement is such that, by 
omitting the parts included- in brackets, and generally indi- 
cated by smaller type, a first course in the most essential 
(and, at the same time, most easily comprehended) principles 



VI PREFACE. 



of grammar can be given in a rapid manner. We recommend 
a fii'st course of this kind, exMbitincr a creneral outline of tlie 
Structure of tlie English Language, in all cases where the 
student is not already familiar with the subject of grammar. 
When in such a course the student comes to the chapter on 
Compound PropositionSj he may return to the beginning, and 
in a second course be requu-ed to answer all the questions. 
Satisfactory answers to these will generally include all that 
the young student is expected to learn. The notes are 
designed chiefly for the satisfaction of teachers and inquisitive 
adepts in the science of grammar. 

If the method of teaching grammar here proposed should 
be received with a share of public approbation, we shall soon 
furnish an abridgment suited for the use of those who are 
only commencing their grammatical studies. The book now 
presented might, we think, be profitably employed, in the 
manner above recommended, with the youngest classes in 
grammar. But the details necessary to explain and justify 
our method, and our views, when they differ from those 
commonly received, have swelled the book to a degree which 
may seem to render it unfit, both as to size and price, for the 
use of beginners. Hhese details will be interesting and 
serviceable to more advanced students, who may wish to 
perfect their knowledge of grammar, — the class for w^hose 
special use we design the present treatise. We hope that 
the work in its present shape will also prove acceptable to 
teachers of youth, and to such gentlemen as take interest in 
the progress of education, and in this class of literary 
subjects. 



CONTENTS 



INTEODUCTION. 

SECT. PAGE. 

1. Natural signs of feeling, thought, &c., . . . . 1 

2. Artificial or 'Articulate signs, .... 
3, 4. Comparative advantages of Natural and of Artificial language, 

5. Combination of Natural with Artificial language, 

6. Province of the Grammarian, . . , . 
1. Spoken Language and Written Language, 

8. Combination of words employed to express single thoughts, 
Hence the origin of the laws of grammar, 

9. Enumeration of subjects treated in this book. 



5 

ib. 
Appendix to Introduction. — Theories of the Origin of Language, 6 



CHAPTER I. 



OF PEOPOSITIONS. 



10. Purposes for which language is employed, 

11. Definition and Classification of Propositions, . 
Analysis of Propositions the chief business of the grammarian, 
Assertive Proposition, ...... 

12. The parts of an Assertive Proposition, 

13. Manner in which the parts of Propositions — Subject, Predicate, and 

Copula, are expressed or indicated in language, . 
Occasional suppression of Subject and Predicate, 

14. Analysis of Propositions consisting of two words, 

15. The Assertive word claims the attention first in analysis. 
Exercises in Analysis, ...... 



%b. 
10 
ib. 



11 
12 
13 
14 
ih. 



VllI 



CONTENTS. 



17. 



18. 



Division of words into classes, according to their functions, . 

Words which express the subjects of Propositions are called Nouns, 
Ox'igin and meaning of this name, . . . . . 

Words which indicate assertion are called verhs. Origin and mean- 
ing of this name, ....... 

Directions as to the manner of exercising the pnpil in analysis, 

Importance of the functions performed by Nouns and Verbs, 



PAGE, 

16 

17 

18 

, ib. 

19 



CHAPTER II. 



OF NOUNS. 



20. 
21, 22. 
2S. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 

81. 



Definition of Nouns, 

Illustration of the definition, &c., 

Classification of Nouns, 

Concrete Nouns, 

Collective Nouns, 

Abstract Nouns, 

Verbal Nouns, . 

Pronouns, 

Personal Pronouns, 

Use of the different Persons, 

Genders of Pronouns, . 

Proper and Common Nouns, 

Use of Common Nouns, 

Singular and Plural forms of Nouns, 

Modifications of words in general. 

Modification of the form of words. 

Digression on the Elementary sounds of Language and on 

Vowels, . 

Diphthongs, 

Consonants. Classification of Consonants, 

Sharp and Plat, or Hard and Smooth Consonants, 

Appendix on Sounds and Letters, 

Formation of Plurals, .... 

Additional Eemarks on the Formation of Plurals, 



Letters 



21 
22 
25 
ib. 
26 
il. 
27 
33 
36 



41 
47 
48 
50 
52 
53 
54 
56 
57 
59 
61 
62 
65 



CHAPTER in. 



OF YEEBS. 

44. Preliminary Eemark. Classification of Verbs in reference to mean- 
ing, 



71 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



SECT. 

45. 
46. 
47. 
. 48. 
49. 
60. 
51. 
52. 
58. 
54. 
55. 
56. 
57. 
58. 
59. 

60. 
61. 
62. 

63. 

64. 

65. 
66. 
67. 



Neuter and Active, or Intransitive and Transitive Verbs, 

Kemarks on the verb to be, . 

The Passive Voice, 

Tenses of Verbs, 

Simple Tenses. Indefinite Tense, 

Past Tense, 

Formation of the Past Tense, . 

Personal Terminations, 

Formation of Participles, 

Modes, .... 

Modes of English verbs. 

Conjugation. Paradigms, 

Compound Tenses, 

Future Tense, . . . 

Compound Tenses formed with the verb Eave^ 

Observations on the Perfect Tense, . 

Compound Forms made with the verb Do^ 

Compound Forms made with May^ Can, MigM, Covld, &c.. 

Compound Forms made with the verb To Be, 

Passive and Progressive Forms, .... 

Eemarks on the Auxiliaries Will, Shall, Would, SJiould, &c, 
Past Tense employed hypothetically, .... 

Eemarks on the Synoptical Table of Tense Forms, . 

Synoptical Table, 

Defective Verbs, ...... 

Impersonal Verbs, ...... 

List of Verbs of the Ancient Conjugation and of Contracted Verbs 

of the Modern Conjugation, 
Notes and Eemarks on the List, 



73 

79 

83 

86 

90 

92 

96 

99 

105 

107 

109 

112 

119 

122 

127 

130 

133 

137 

139 

140 

143 

146 

150 

152 

156 

157 

160 
164 



CHAPTER IV. 



MODIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE BY NOUNS. 



68. Eemarks on Modification by complementary words, 

69. Noun in Apposition Modification, 

70. Noun Adjectively employed, . 

71. Infinitive used to modify a noun, 

72. Noun Complementary of Neuter Verbs, 

73. Cases of Nouns, 

74. Declension of Nouns and Pronouns, 

75. Genitive Case Modification, 

76. Objective Modification, 

77. Infinitives used to modify verbs, 

78. Infinitive Complementary of Active Verbs, 



169 
170 
175 
177 
178 
180 
188 
187 
195 
205 
210 



CONTENTS. 



SECT. PAGE. 

78. Coustructiou with ask and teach, . . . . . 212 

79. Dative Modification, or Personal Object of the Verb, . . 216 

80. Order of Seqiience of Modifications, ..... 228 



CHAPTER Y. 



OF PEEPOSITIONS. 



81. Prepositions in general, ...... 233 

Prepositions in composition. Prepositions used Adverbially, . 235 

Noun and Preposition Modification, ..... 236 

82. Additional Remarks on the Prepositions, .... 242 

83. Modification of the whole Assertion, .... 245 

84. Accusative of Time, Value, Measure, Weight, &c. . . . 247 



CHAPTER YI. 



OF ADJECTIVES. 

85. Adjectives. General Eemarks, ..... 254 
Descriptive Adjectives, ...... 255 

86. Uses of Descriptive Adjectives. Descriptive Adjective Modifica- 

tion, ......... 259 

87. Adjectives employed substantively, ..... 263 

88. Adjective Complementary of Verbs, ..... 266 
Adjective Complementary of Neuter Verbs, .... 268 

89. Adjective Complementary of Active Verbs, .... 271 

90. Eemarks on the Noun and the Adjective Complementary, . . 275 

91. Determinative Adjectives, . . . . . . 279 



CHAPTER YH. 



OF ADYEEBS. 



General Eemarks on Adverbs, ..... 282 

Functions of Adverbs, ....... 283 

Circumstantial Adverbs, ...... 287 

Arrangement of Adverbs, ...... 289 

Classification of Circumstantial Adverbs, .... 290 

Derivation and Formation of Adverbs, .... 292 



CONTENTS. XI 



BECT. PAGE. 

93. Adjectives used Adverbially. Adverbial Phrases, . . . 295 
The Negative Not, . . . . » . .296 

The words Fes and iVo, ...... 298 

Two Negatives, ........ 299 

94. Modification of Adjectives. Comparison, .... 800 
Irregular Comparison, ....... 805 

95. Comparison of Adverbs, , . . . . . 307 

96. Modification of Adjectives and Adverbs by distinct words, . 310 
Dative Modification of Adjectives . . . . . ib. 
Accusative Modification of Adjectives, . , . . 311 
Infinitive Modification of Adjectives, ..... 813 
Noun and Preposition Modification of Adjectives and Adverbs, . 814 



CHAPTER YIII. 



OF INTEEEOaATIVE AND IMPEEATIVE PEOPOSITIONS. 

97. Interrogative Propositions, . . . . . .816 

98. Eemarks on Interrogative Words, ..... 820 

99. Imperative Propositions, ...... 822 

100. Synoptical Table of the various forms of Modification of Nouns, 

Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs, ..... 325 
Summary description of the purposes served by the several kinds 

of Modification, . . . . . . .328 

Eulesof Concord, &c., . . . . . .830 

Order to be followed in the Analysis of Propositions, . - . ih. 



CHAPTER IX. 



OF COMPOUND PEOPOSITIONS. 



101. Definition of Compound propositions, and general remarks, . 833 

102. Accessory Proposition. Classification of Accessory Propositions, . 335 
Conjunctions and Conjunctive Words, . . . . 886 

103. Substantive Accessory Propositions, ..... 337 
Substantive Accessory as Subject of the Compound Proposition, . ih. 
It employed as Substitute Subject before the verb, which is follow- 
ed by the Accessory expressing the real subject, . . 839 

104. Accessories used for the purpose of Modification, . . . 341 

105. Substantive Accessory employed in Apposition, . . . 342 



CONTEXTS. 



SECT. 

106. 

lor. 

lOS. 
109. 

no. 
111. 

112. 

113. 
114. 
115. 
116. 
117. 



118. 



119. 
120. 
121. 



122. 
123. 



124. 



125. 

126. 
127. 
123. 
129. 

130, 
131, 
132. 
138, 
134. 
135, 
186, 



Accessory Complementary of the verb To Be, 

Accessory used as ObjectiTe Modification, .... 

Substantire Accessory expressive of Purpose, 

Substantive Accessory Modiftiug Adjectives, 

Adjective Accessory Propositions, ..... 

Conjunctive, or Eelative Pronouns. ..... 

Functions of Adjective Accessories,. . . . . . 

Accessories in wMeh. the Conjunctive Pronoun performs a modify- 
ing function as objective to the verb, <fec., 

Explic-ative, or Epithetic Adjective Accessory Propositions, 

The ■ff'ord What employed as a Eelative, .... 

Compound Eelatives and Accessories formed by their help, 

Idiomatic use of the TTord 7)^.e?'e, . . . . . 

Arrangement of the Adjective Accessory in the Compound Propo- 
sition, ........ 

Arrangement of the CoDJunctive Pronoun in the Accessory Propo- 
sition, ."....... 

Bule for the Xumber and Person of the Conjunctive Pronoxm, 

Antecedents of different Persons, . . . . . 

Promiscuous Examples of Adjective Accessory Propositions, 

Adverbial Accessory Propositions. General Bemarks, 

Adverbial Accessories which modiiy Adjectives, 

Accessory of Greater or Lesser IntcDsity, 

Aec-essory of Equally Yarying Intensities, 

Accessory indicating Intensity by Example or Effe 

Accessory of Similar Intensity, 

Adverbial Accessories which modify Verbs, . 

Ac-cessory denoting Manner by Comparison, 

Accessory denoting Manner by Effect, 

Adverbial Accessories of Place, 

Accessory of Locality. Place where, . 

Accessory of Direction towards a Place, 

Accessory of Direction from a Place, . 

Adverbial Accessories of Time, 

Accessory of Coincident Time, 

Accessory of Coincident Duration, 

Accessory indicating Precedence in Time, 

Accessory indicating Subsequence in Time, . 

Accessory limiting by reference to an Anticipated event 

General Eemarks on Accessories of Time, 

Accessory of Causality, 

Argumentative Accessory, 

Accessory of Effect, .... 

Accessory of Inference, 

Accessory of Purpose, .... 

Accessory of Purpose Preventive, 

Exceptive Accessory Proposition, 



PAGE. 

343 
345 
347 
348 
350 
i*. 
353 

356 
359 
364 
366 
369 

873 

374 
376 
377 
378 
380 
383 
386 
388 
389 
390 
S92 
393 
394 
395 
396 
397 
398 
400 

ib. 
404 
406 
407 
408 
409 
410 
412 
417 
419 
423 

ib. 
424 



CONTENTS. XUl 
SECT, PAGE. 

187. Conditional and Hypothetical Propositions, .... 425 

138. Concessive Propositions, ...... 480 

139. Compound Proposition with Accessory of Eeference, . . 435 

140. Contracted Accessories, ...... 486 

141. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Verbal Nouns end- 

ing in ing, . ... . . . . . 488 

142. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Infinitives, . . 442 
Infinitive Absolute, ....... 446 

Infinitive with Accusative before it, . . . . . 447 

143. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Participles, . . 451 
Noun and Participle Absolute, ..... 454 



CHAPTER X. 

COMBINATION OF INDEPENDENT PEOPOSITIONS, 

144. General Kemarks on the Combination of Independent Propositions, 458 

145. Copulative Co-ordination, or Simple Connection, . . . 460 

146. The employment of Co-ordinate for Compound Construction, . 467 

147. Adversative and Exceptive Connection, .... 470 

148. Connection of Alternatives, ...... 475 

149. Additional Kules of Concord, having reference to Connected Co- 

ordinate Propositions, ...... 481 

150. Observations on But equivalent to only, .... 485 

151. Attempt to trace the Transitions of the word BTJT, . . . 487 

152. Eemarks on the Distinction between Prepositions and Conjunc- 

tions, ........ 492 



CHAPTER XI. 

OF INTEEJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATOET WOEDS AND PHEASE8. 



153. Interjections, ...... 

154. Exclamatory Words and Phrases, 

155. Additional Observations on the Personal Pronouns, 

156. Additional Observations on the Possessives, 

157. Eemarks on the Genders, .... 

158. Additional Observations on the Determinatives, Articles, 
The Determinative An ox A, \ . . 

The Determinative The, .... 

Cases in which TJie is used, .... 
Cases in which it is not used, . . . . • . 



495 

497 
500 
508 
511 
514 
517 
520 
522 
525 



XIV CONTENTS. 

SECT. PAGE. 

158. Tlie Determinatives TMs and Tliat, . . . . .529 
Order of Arrangement of the Determinatives, . . . 530 

159. Additional Observations on tlie Conjunctive Pronouns Who, 

Which, That, . . . . . . .531 

160. Appendix ok Puncttjation, ...... 537 

161. Appe>t)Ix o:n' Veesieication, ...... 554 



STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE, 



INTRODUCTION. 

§ 1. The signs employed in making known to others our feel- 
ings, emotions, and thoughts, may be divided into two distinct classes, 

(1) NATURAL SIGNS and ARTIFICIAL SIGNS. 

(2) In the class of natural signs we include, 1st, signs addressed 
to the ear — ^the various sounds indicative of the emotions of our 
minds ; as, sighs, groans, cries. 2d, Signs addressed to the eye — 
the various indications of emotion by the expression of the counte- 
nance, by smiles, frowns, &c., or by various gestures of the head, 
arms, and other members of the body. And, 3d, a more limited 
number of signs addressed to the sense of touch ; as the grasp and 
pressure of the hand, &c. 

(3) Between this class of signs and the feelings or emotions which 
they indicate there exists a natural bond of association. They do 
not, like the class of artificial signs, owe their origin in any degree 
to human contrivance, to the consent of men, to an arbitrary agree- 
ment that they shall be used to express exclusively certain feelings, 
or certain emotions. On the contrary, they flow spontaneously from 
nature, are not acquired by human industry, and are intelligible alike 
to men of every nation. (4) The signs of this class constitute what 
has been called natural language. (5) It may be remarked, in pass- 



§ 1. (1) What two distinct classes of Signs are employed in conveying our thoughts and 
feelings to others ? 

(2) Enumerate some of the Natural Signs employed for this purpose. 

(3) What distinguishes these signs from those of the second class ? (4) What do these 
signs constitute? (5) What are they best fitted to express ? 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

ing, that this species of language is mucli better adapted to express 
feeling, or emotion, tlian to express thought ; and that it is pos- 
sessed, in a greater or lesser degree, by the lower animals. 

§ 2. In the class of artificial signs we include (1) those (in some 
sense, at least) arbitraiy, acquhed signs, which constitute the endless 
variety of dialects employed for the interchange of thought amongst 
men. (2) These signs, unlike those of natural language, have no 
necessary connection with the ideas which they represent, but owe 
their significance to the contriyance, or to the consent of the distinct 
races of men who employ them. This class of signs for the com- 
munication of thought is distinguished (3) by the name of artificial 
or articulate language (a). 

§ 3. The signs of natural language have (1) the advantage of 
being universally understood by all mankind. They serve as the 
only means of communication between those who have not a com- 
mon dialect. They also express the stronger emotions in the most 
vivid and impressive manner. (2) But, on the other hand, only a 
hmited portion of our feelings, and few of our thoughts, can be 
clearly conveyed to the minds of others by these signs. (3) We 
must have recourse to o/rticulate — artificial language, for the pur- 
pose of communicating to others the nicer shades of feehng, and the 
various products of our thinldng powers with a satisfactory degi'ee 
of perspicuity and fulness. 

§ 4. (1) Such a means of communication as articulate language 
affords, is indispensable both to the complete development and to 
the proper use of man's rational powers. (2) It is an instrument 
necessary for the improvement and advancement of reason, for giv- 
ing precision and fixity to human thought, and securing its reten- 
tion in the memory of the inquirer, as well as for the mutual inter- 
change of the products of thought among men. (3) Our gracious 

(a) See Appendix to this Introduction. 



§ 2. (1) "What are Artificial Signs ? (2) What is the distinguisMng characteristic of 
this class of signs ? (3) By what name are they called ? •*■ 

§ 3. (1) Point out the advantages of natural language. (2) Point out its defects. (3) 
Mention some purposes Avhich cannot be effected without recourse to artificial language. 

§ 4. (1) To what particular purpose is articulate language indispensable ? (2) Eepeat 
what is said in illustration. (3) How has our Creator displayed his bounty towards man in 
regard of this matter ? 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

Creator has, accordingly, to complete his bounty to his rational 
offspring on earth, added to the gift of reason the gift of organs 
adapted to enunciate distinctly the truths which reason discovers. 

§ 5. It is proper here to observe, that (1) the combination of 
natural with artificial language is requisite to the most effective 
communication of our thoughts. (2) Emphasis, inflexions of the 
voice, tones, expression of the countenance (especially of the eyes), 
gestures, &c. (all borrowed from natural language), when united 
with artificial language, contribute much to render it perspicuous, 
as well as impressive. Hence, chiefly, the superior charms, and the 
greater power of spoken compared with written discourse. (3) The 
accomplished and skilful orator combines with the arbitrary signs 
of artificial language other signs from a language which addresses 
every class of minds. Even when, on account of the ignorance of 
his hearers, artificial signs are imperfectly comprehended, natural 
signs, which are universally intelligible, serve to interpret their 
meaning. They infuse spirit and life into the dr^/ bones of articu- 
late speech, and may be said to endow it with a hving soul. 

§ 6. (1) The grammarian's researches are exclusively directed 
to artificial or articulate language. (2) Some few signs, belonging 
properly to natural language, are found mixed with the signs of 
artificial language. (3) But these signs — commonly called, in our 
grammars, interjections — do not come under the laws of grammar. 
The grammarian has only to distinguish them from other signs, give 
them a name, and pass them by. 

(4) To explain the laws of artificial language is the particular 
province of him who proposes to teach the science of grammar. (5) 
To guide to the proper use of the signs of artificial language, and 
to the correct interpretation of the thoughts of others embodied in 



§ 5. (1) What is requisite to the most effective communication of human thought ? 
(2) Illustrate this assertion. To what are the superior charms and the greater power of 
spoken discourse attributable ? Answer. Chiefly, if not exclusively, to the combination of 
natural with artificial language. (3) Illustrate this assertion. 

§ 6. (1) To which of these languages are the grammarian's researches directed ? (2) 
Are the signs of natural language ever found mixed with those of artificial language? (3) 
If so, what are they called — do they come under the laws of gi-ammar, and what has the 
grammarian to do with them ? 

(4) What is the province (or peculiar business) of him who teaches the science of gram- 
mar? (5) Of the teacher of grammar as an arif (6) What is the course pursued in 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

language, so far as this can be effected by reference to the laws and 
usages of language, is tbe province of him who proposes to teach 
grammar as an art. (6) In practical treatises for the instruction 
of the young, the science and the art are usually taught together. 
The laws of language, to some extent, are explained in connection 
with their practical application to a particular language. C^) It 
seems the most judicious course to teach the elementary principles 
of universal grammar (the science of grammar) in connection with 
the particular grammar of our mother tongue, and with the aid of 
illustrations drawn, as much as possible, from that language of which 
the forms, usages, and significance are most familiar to us. 

§ *?. (1) Artificial language is presented to us in two distinct 
forms, viz., spoken language and written language. It is often ne- 
cessary, in grammatical researches, to keep steadily in view the 
distinction between these two forms of language. (2) A neglect of 
this precaution has frequently led to confusion of thought and inac- 
curacy of expression. (3) Spoken language consists of signs of 
thought^ expressed by the organs of speech, and addressed to the 
ears. These signs are called words. (4) Written language, on the 
other hand, consists of signs of these signs ; that is, of signs of words. 
(5) We call both classes of signs words ; and hence frequent confu- 
sion. (6) It is to be wished that we had a special name for a written 
word, to distinguish it, where necessary, from a spoken word, and 
also a name for a written letter, to distinguish it from a spoken sound. 

§ 8. (1) It is not by the use of separate unconnected words, 
repeated in succession without rule or law, but by the properly regu- 
lated combination of words, that we, in almost every case, communi- 
cate our thoughts to one another. Though it is not to be denied that 
every word has significance of some sort (2), a single word is seldom 
in our language the sign of a complete thought. (3) We cannot 

grammars intended for the instruction of the young ? (7) What method is recommended 
as judicious ? 

§ 7. (1) In what two distinct forms is artificial language presented to ns ? (2) Why is 
it necessary to keep this distinction in view ? Ans. Because " a neglect," &c. (3) Of what 
does spoken language consist? (4) Of what written language? (5) By what common 
name are the signs of spoken and written language designated ? (6) What is to be wished 
in order to avoid the danger of confounding spoken signs and written signs f 

§ 8, (1) Do we generally express our thoughts by unconnected words, or by combina- 
tions of words? (2) Are single words often in our language the signs of complete 



INTRODUCTION. 6 

announce clearly in the English language even the simple fact that 
we are cold, without the use of more than one word. The shortest 
form of expressing this simj^le thought requires the use of three 
words, / am cold. Each of these words is, no doubt, a significant 
sign, but, at the same time, incapable alone of communicating a clear 
declaration of thought to those around us. (4) Again, every com- 
bination of words will not express thought. A combination made 
at randotn generally expresses nothing but nonsense. 

(5) Hence the necessity of paying attention to the principles 
which regulate, in each particular language, the combination of 
words, in order to express thought clearly and forcibly. The inves- 
tigation of these principles is the purpose proposed in a treatise on 
grammar. (6) It is to the fact that the artificial signs, which unite 
to express our thoughts, are complicated, and require skilful combi- 
nation, that the Laws of Grammar owe their origin. {!) If every 
word served as the sign of a complete thought, whilst the number 
of words requisite for the purpose of communicating our thoughts 
(contrary to what might, at first sight, be expected) would be greatly 
increased, Grammar would either be altogether useless, or its province 
would be greatly limited, and entirely changed. This maybe illus- 
trated by referring to some few words in our language which express 
a complete thought : (8) for example. Yes and No. Such words 
fall not within the ordinary rules, nor even within the ordinary 
classifications and nomenclature of grammar. All complexity is 
here excluded, since a single sign expresses a complete thought; 
consequently, the application of all laws of combination is excluded. 
Grammatical science and art, as now understood, are null and use- 
less, so far as concerns such signs. 

§ 9. After these preliminary remarks, the reader will be pre- 
pared to find that (1) words — the classification of words, the 
MODIFICATION OR CHANGES OF FORM which WORDS undcrgo in order 



thoughts ? (3) Repeat the illustration. (4) Do all combinations of words, or combinations 
made at random, express thought ? 

(5) What is the inference drawn from these facts ? (6) To what do the laws of gram- 
mar owe their origin ? (7) If every word were to serve as the sign of a complete thought, 
what consequences would follow in reference to the number of words necessary to form a 
copious language, and in reference to systems of grammar? (8) Illustrate this position. 

§ 9. (1) Enumerate the subjects which are to engage our attention in the following 



b APPENDIX TO INTRODUCTION. 

to express a modified meaning, and, especially, the laws or prin- 
ciples which regulate the combination of words for the purpose 
of expressing thought, form the subject matter of the following 
pages. 

APPENDIX TO INTRODUCTIOK 

Till recently, two opinions, in reference to the origin of language, 
have divided the learned. According to the one, the original lan- 
guage was the direct gift of God to our first parents. According to 
the other, language is the invention of man himself — the work of his 
conscious reason. 

According to the first opinion, man must have been taught the 
words of language, as a scholar is taught a foreign language at the 
present day. Such instruction presupposes a knowledge of what is to be 
expressed by language. If this opinion is correct, all man's first know- 
ledge, as well as the language in which to express it, must have been 
a direct revelation. It may be objected that aU this is inconsistent 
with the mode in which God has treated man in other things. He 
has bestowed on man powers of research and invention, and generally 
left these to find their natural development, under the circumstances 
in which he has placed him. The opinion now stated seems also in- 
consistent with the language employed in Genesis 2:19, where we are 
informed that God brought the animals " unto Adam, to see what he 
would call them ; and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, 
that was the name thereof." In accordance with the opinion we are 
considering, we should expect rather to have been told that God gave 
the names and taught them to Adam, and that whatsoever God caUed 
every living creature, that was the name thereof. On the contrary, 
Adam is represented as already possessed of the power of speech, and 
as spontaneously inventing names for the objects around him. 

According to the second opinion, man is tlie inventor of language, 
in the same sense in which he is the inventor of the various contri- 
vances which distinguish civihzation ; and it is consistent with this 
opinion, as held by the ancients, to suppose that man may have re- 
mained for a long time after his appearance on earth without the 
advantage of language, as we know that he did in fact remain desti- 
tute of many of the most valuable inventions which he now possesses. 
The poet, in accordance with this view, describes men, when they first 
crawled from the earth, as devoid of articulate speech: '■''Mutum et 
turpe pecusy This theory gives to man the glory of contriving Ian- 



APPENDIX TO INTRODUCTION, 7 

guage, in the same sense as he claims the glory of other human inven- 
tions. 

It is objected to this view of the origin of language, that it is in- 
conceivable how men, without some considerable advance in civiliza- 
tion, without some progress towards social order, could invent and 
agree upon a language, and equally inconceivable how they could have 
made any advance towards social order without the help of language. 
It might, indeed, be answered that the invention of language and tho 
progress of civilization advanced simultaneously — pari passu. But 
another and more serious objection is, that this theory, at least in its 
boldest form, is inconsistent with what is recorded in the Scriptures 
in regard of the primitive condition of man ; and perhaps it is equally 
inconsistent with all that we can discover of the history of our race 
from other resources, and with the conjectures of a sound and enlight- 
ened philosophy. 

Another theory of the origin of language has been more recently 
proposed ; first, we believe, by the philosophical grammarians of Ger- 
many, viz., that language is a sjjontaneous growth — the result of that 
organization bestowed by our Creator on his rational offspring on 
earth. This theory, subjected to proper modifications, we think less 
objectionable than either of the preceding. It is more reconcileable, 
both with what is said in reference to this matter in Genesis, and with 
all the historical facts which bear upon this subject. It is more con- 
formable, also, with what we see every day subjected to our observa- 
tion in the progressive growth of language. 

According to this theory, language is a growth — an organized 
growth, because the product of an organization — just as the intellec- 
tual improvement of our race is a growth — a development of powers 
lodged in man at his creation — a growth, progressive according to our 
wants. As our knowledge is enlarged, the vehicle of communication 
is simultaneously enlarged. According to this theory, every thought 
of a being organized as man is, naturally labors to find utterance, and 
calls into exercise his powers of articulation. 

This theory accounts for the conformity discovered in the general 
laws of structure in all languages, and for the resemblance of many of 
the original words in these languages to the things which they repre- 
sent. This is especially exemplified in words which express sounds, 
and in the names given to animals and to actions distinguished by 
some peculiarity of sound. (Se'e Introduction to Becker's Ausfahrliche 
Deutsche Grammatilc.) 

Viewed according to this theory, articulate language is natural, as 



8 APPENDIX TO INTKODUCTION. 

well as what has been distinguished from it by the name of natural lan- 
guage. StUl, it is in some sense arbitrary and artificial. It is subjected, 
as regards its external form, to hnman volition, to human choice, to 
human caprice if yon will, as is manifest from the manner in which we 
see languages daily grow under om' eyes, as well as from the vast va- 
riety and diversity of the languages which we find in the world. No 
such diversity is found in those natural signs which constitute what 
has been called natural language. These are invariably always the 
same in the same race of animals, and instantly ahke inteUigble to 
each individual of the race. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF PROPOSITIONS. 

§ 10. (1) We employ artificial language, 1st. To assert (that 
is, to say or speak) our opinions, or declare our thoughts, feelings, 
emotions, &c. 2nd. To question, or interrogate others in order to 
obtain information. 3rd. To express commands, entreaties, exhor- 
tations, &c. (2) Distinct forms of expression are employed in 
discourse for these three several purposes ; and, though, by supply- 
ing what is suppressed in the form of the expression (because mani- 
festly implied in the sense), we might readily reduce all questions 
and commands to the form of assertions, still it is convenient to 
consider these forms separately. 

§ 11. (1) Any combination of words which expresses an asser- 
tion, a question, a command, &c., or, more generally, any combina- 
tion of words which expresses complete sense is called a Proposi- 
tion. (2) Those combinations by which an assertion, a question, 
a command (including entreaty, request, &c.), are expressed, may 
be called respectively assertive or declarative^ interrogative or ques- 
tioning^ and imperative or commanding propositions. These three 
are usually recognized as distinct forms of propositions (a). 

IsToTE {a). — This classification includes all independent propositions. 
Dependent propositions (that is, propositions employed to modify or 
complete other propositions) sometimes express neither assertion, in- 
terrogation, nor command. As, for example, If the men come^ I wiU 
let you know. Here the proposition, if the men come^ asserts nothing. 
It expresses merely the condition on which the assertion, '-'• I will let 
you 'know'''' rests ; it is simply here a modification of this latter pro- 
position. But it diifers no way in form from an assertive proposition, 

§ 10. (1) Enumerate the purposes for which language is employed. (2) W^hy is a 
classification of the purposes for which language is employed important in a grammatical 
point of view? Ans. Because distinct forms of eoapression are employed for these several 
purposes. 

§ 11. (1) What is a proposition ? (2) Enumerate the different kinds of propositions. 
I* 



10 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 12. 

and therefore requires no separate place in a classification of proposi- 
tions having reference to their grammatical forms. In fact, when yon 
withdraw the word "i/"" (which is no part of the proposition, bnt 
serves merely to indicate its connection, and the purpose of this con- 
nection with another proposition), the proposition becomes at once 
assertive. Or, perhaps, rather, if is the verb of an imperative pro- 
position, and " the men oome'^ is the objective to it. 

Since interchange of thought is effected through the medium of 
propositions, and discourse consists almost wholly of propositions of 
one or other of the kinds above mentioned, it follows (3) that the 
chief business of the grammarian is the analysis of propositions, 
and the explanation of the manner in which words are combined to 
form them. 

(4) The assertive or declarative proposition claims om- first and 
chief attention, (o) It is the most simple ; it is complete, contain- 
ing all the parts essential to every form of proposition fully express- 
ed ; it recm-s most frequently in discoui-se ; and even were interro- 
gative and imperative propositions not reducible (as they seem to us 
to be) to the assertive form, they diflPer from it only in the arrange- 
ment, or in the suppression of some of then* constituent parts. 
After the assertive form is explained, the few points in which the 
others differ fr-om it will be easily explained and readily under- 
stood. 

§ 12. (1) It is manifestly essential to an assertion that some- 
thing should be asserted — that is, said or spoken — of some person, or 
some thing, and as an assertive proposition is an assertion clothed in 
language, the three following parts may be distinguished in eveiy 
such proposition when fully expressed. (2) First, some means of 
indicating the person or thing of which we speak, or make the as- 
sertion. This is called the subject of the proposition. (3) Second, 
a means of expressing what is intended to be said or asserted of the 
subject. This is called the predicate of the proposition. (4) 



(3) What is the cliief business of the grammarian ? 

(4) Which kind of propositions claims our first and chief attention? (5) Enumerate the 
reasons assigned for considering this form first 

§ 12. (1) How many parts may be distinguished in every completely expressed propo- 
sition? (2) What is the S2j5;ee« of a proposition? Ans. That about which the assertion 
contained in the proposition is made. (3) What is the 'predicate of a proposition ? Ana. 



§ 13.] OF PROPOSITIONS. 11 

The word predicate means what is said or asserted. [(5) The 
subject and predicate are called by logicians the two terms of the 
proposition.] And, third (6), a means of indicating that the predi- 
cate is intended to be asserted of the subject. This is what the 
logicians call the Copula — that is to say, what couples^ connects, or 
unites the subject and predicate. 

§ 13. [(1) In some languages (the Latin and Greek, for ex- 
ample) all the parts of a proposition, subject, predicate, and copula, 
are sometimes expressed by a single word ; but a word including 
a combi7iation of significant signs.'] (2) In our language, the sub- 
ject, however simple and unmodified, is usually expressed by at 
least one separate word in assertive propositions. (3) The copula 
is nevei- (as we view the matter, see § 46, and note) expressed in 
the English language, nor in any language, which we know, by a 
separate word. (4) The copula and predicate (or the leading pa7't 
of the predicate) are united in the same word. Otherwise, the 
word which expresses the predicate, or leading part of the predi- 
cate, is so modified — assumes such a form, or receives such place 
in the arrangement of the proposition, as, in accordance with the 
usages of language, to indicate assertion in assertive propositions, 
interrogation in interrogative propositions, &c. 

KoTE. — There are a few, very few exceptions ; and even these occur 
in forms of expression now rarely employed — such as, for example, 
methinJcs, meseems, melisteth. These we intend to consider in their 
proper place. (See §§66: 8; and T9: 18.) On the contrary, in im- 
perative propositions (if the analysis commonly given of them is to 
be followed) the subject is usually suppressed ; for example, Go to the 
door ; Bring me a book, &c. In such propositions as these, no mistake 
can arise from the suppression of the subject, since the party address- 
ed — the person or persons spoken to — is in our language almost always 
the subject. The subject of an imperative proposition must be ex- 



That which is asserted of the subject. (4) What does the word predicate mean ? [(5) 
What are the subjects and predicates of propositions called by logicians ?] (6) What is 
meant by the copula of a proposition ? Ans. That which Indicates that the predicate ie: 
asserted of the subject. 

[§ 13. (t) How are the three parts of a'propositiou sometimes expressed in certain lan- 
guages?] (2) How is the subject of an asseiHive proposition usually expressed in our lan- 
guage ? (3) Is the copula expressed by a separate word ? (4) IIqw then is it indicated ? 
Ans. " The predicate is so modified," &c. — repeating as above. 



12 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 13, 

pressed, when it does not coincide with the party we address. This 
happens rarely in modern speech. 

(5) The predicate and copula united, smce they are essential 
constituents of the proposition, must always be fully expressed in 
every complete independent proposition by a word of that class 
which the usage of language has assigned for that purpose. (6) 
Two words, then, are necessary, in om- language, to the full expres- 
sion of an assertion, or to constitute a complete proposition — one to 
express the subject, and another to express the united predicate and 
copula. 

[(Y) When two or more propositions, having the same common 
subject, or the same predicate, are united together, the common sub- 
ject or predicate is very generally suppressed in one or more of 
them. (8) For example, John reads and writes=to John reads, and 
John writes. Here the subject of the latter proposition is suppressed 
by the usage of language, and left to be supplied from the preceding 
one. John and James write=to John writes, and James writes. 
Here the predicate and copula are only once expressed, but in such 
a form as to indicate that the assertion reaches both subjects. Some- 
times, in a proposition connected with a preceding proposition, only 
the modifying words are repeated, and both subject and predicate 
with copula, are to be supplied from the other propositions. For 
example : " They (power and riches) Jceep off the summer shower 
not the winter storm"=to They keep off the summer shower, they 
keep not off the winter storm. (9) But this forms no real excep- 
tion to what we have asserted above. The subject or predicate, in 
such cases, is simply suppi^essed^l^h to be supplied by the under- 
standing of the hearer. It is not indicated or contained under the 
form of the part of the proposition expressed. They are not, there- 
fore, complete independent propositions. (10) When, in certain 
languages, a whole proposition is expressed by a single word, the 

(5) Are the united predicate and copula always expressed in an Independent propo- 
sition ? (6) How many words are necessary in our language to the full expression of an 
assertion, or to constitute a complete proposition ? 

(7) What sometimes happens when two or more propositions having the same subject 
or the same predicate are united together? (8) Give examples. (9) Show that this is 
not a real exception to what is said ahove. (10) When a whole proposition, as in some lan- 
guages, is expressed by a single word, how is the subject indicated ? 



§ 14.] OF PROPOSITIONS. 13 

subject of the proposition is indicated by tbe form and inflexion of 
the word which expresses the united predicate and copula.] 

§ 14. We are now prepared to commence the analysis of the 
most simple form of propositions ; namely, those which consist of 
two words, one representing the subject, and the other the united 
copula and predicate of the proposition. [(1) By the analysis of a 
proposition we mean the separation of its parts for the purpose of 
distinct examination.] Let us take, as an example for analysis, the 
expression, Snow melts. (2) These two words form a proposition, 
because they express a complete assertion. (3) The word " snow,''^ 
in this proposition, represents the subject, because it expresses the 
thing concerning which the assertion is made. (4) The word 
" melts" includes both the predicate and copula, because it both 
expresses what is asserted of the subject, and indicates that it is in- 
tended to he asserted. 

[We may carry our analysis still farther, and separate the predi- 
cate from the copula. For, though we have no means in language 
of expressing the copula alone (5), we can express the predicate sep- 
arately by a word that gives no indication of assertion. In the 
proposition " snow melts,^^ the word melting exactly expresses the 
predicate ; for the action expressed by the word melting is mani- 
festly what is asserted of the " snowJ'' 

(6) It may be remarked here, that the predicate-word melting, 
preceded or followed by the subject-word snow, asserts nothing — 
that is, these two words cannot constitute a proposition. Snow melt- 
ing and melting snow, though significant phrases — that is, words 
properly arranged to enter into discourse, and form part of a pro- 
position — are neither of them complete propositions, because they 
do not express an assertion. (V) But, on the other hand, the word 
melts — at once, in accordance with the usage of our language, indi- 
cating assertion and expressing the action of melting — joined to the 

§ 14. (1) What is meant by the analysis of a proposition ? (2) Why are the words 
" snow mslts " said to form a proposition ? (3) In the proposition " snow melts " point out 
the word which represents the subject, and give the reason for so considering it. (4) Which 
word represents predicate and copula, and why is it said to represent these ? 

[(5) Can the predicate of a proposition "be exhibited separately ? What is the predicate 
of the proposition '^ snow melts" disconnected from the copula? (6) Show that this pre- 
dicate-word or sign joined to a subject will not form a proposition. (7) Eepeat what is said 
above of the word melts.] 



14 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 15. 

subject mow^ constitutes a proposition ; that is, expresses an asser- 
tion, or, what is the same thing, a complete thought.] 

(8) In the arrangement of an assertive proposition, the subject 
is generally placed before the assertive word. This may be con- 
sidered the natural order (9), though it is often inverted by poets 
to suit then* measure, and by orators for rhetorical effect. (10) 
The contrary arrangement also prevails in some few forms of expres- 
sion in ordinary use ; as, " says /," " said Ae," and the now obsolete 
form of expression, " quoth At?," and perhaps a few other forms of 
assertion. 

§ 15. (1) In the analysis of propositions, the learner should 
always direct his attention fii'st to the assertive word. (2) This we 
recommend, fii'st, because this is the most important part of every 
proposition ; and, secondly, because it is the part most easily recog- 
nised. This results from the fact, that the assertive word is always 
employed for one and the same purpose (except it should be a word 
of double meaning — see § 16, below), whereas the class of words 
employed to represent the subjects of propositions (without any 
change of meaning) perform other fanctions, serve other purposes 
besides expressing the subjects of propositions. (3) The answer to 
the question, formed by the assertive word preceded by what, gives 
the subject. For example. Beauty fades. What fades ? Ans., Beauty, 
the subject. 

It is now time to exercise the pupil in pointing out the words 
which express the subjects, and the words which express the com- 
bined predicates and copulas, or what, for the sake of brevity, we 
may call the assertive words, in the following and similar proposi- 
tions. 

Exercise I. — Beauty fades. Virtue flourishes. Memory decays. 
Time fleets. Da}- dawns. Corn grows. Rain falls. Water fi-eezes. 

(S) What is the usual or natural order of arrangement of the subject, and the assertive 
word (or combined predicate and copula) in an assertive proposition ? (9) Mention classes 
of MTiters that sometimes invert the usual order, and the purposes for which they take this 
liberty with the arrangement in common use. (10) Mention some of the inverted expres- 
sions in ordinary use. 

§ 15. (1) To -which part of a proposition should the learner first direct his attention in 
attempting an analysis? (2) State the reasons assigned for recommending this course. 
(3) Tell how to form a question to which the answer is the subject of a given proposition. 
Illustrate by an example. 



§ 15.J OF PROPOSITIONS. 15 

Gunpowder explodes. Men walk. Reptiles creep. Birds fly. 
Fishes swim. Boys play. Children talk. Laborers work, &c. &c. 

The pupil may be questioned on these examples according to 
the following model. Example : " Beauty fadesP Do these two 
words form a proposition ? Ans. Yes. Why ? Ans. Because they 
express an assertion. What is the assertive word in this proposition, 
and why is it so called ? Ans. " Fades'"' is the assertive word, be- 
cause it expresses the predicate, and indicates assertion. Point out 
the subject-word of the proposition, and tell why you call it the 
subject. Ans. " Beautif expresses the subject, because it is in regard 
of beauty {about beauty) that the assertion exj)ressed by the w^ord 
^'■fades''' is made. Can the predicate of this proposition be expressed 
alone — separate from the copula ? Ans. Yes, it may be expressed 
by the word fading. Fading is exactly what is here asserted of 
beauty. Can the copula be expressed separately ? Ans. Ko ; the 
copula is never expressed by a separate word, but is always com- 
bined with the predicate, or the leading part of the predicate, to form 
the assertive word. 

The teacher can add more examples, if he pleases. But it is 
better, we think, to encourage the pupil to form examples for him- 
self, in the manner prescribed in the following exercises. A good 
exercise may also be given by selecting a passage from any book, 
or taking one of the exercises in the more advanced part of this 
work, and requiring the learner to point out the subject and asser- 
tive word of each proposition. 

Exercise II. — Form propositions, by uniting such other assertive 
words as will make sense with the subjects in Exercise I. 

Under this, and some of the following exercises, the pupil may 
be required to construct a given number of propositions for a lesson ; 
and he may continue the exercise so long as he finds he can sup- 
ply appropriate assertive words to unite with the given subjects. 

Exercise III. — Form a given number of propositions by uniting 
other subjects with the assertive words in Exercise I. 

Exercises IV., V., &c. — Let the pupil now form two-worded 
propositions from his own reso'urces, without having either subject 
or assertive word suggested to him. 



16 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 16. 

In a class, let each pupil try wlio can construct the greatest 
number of appropriate propositions consisting of two words. 

Note. — These exercises must be continued till the learner clearly 
comprehends what constitutes a proposition, and can readily distinguish 
the terms which form its essential parts. Here let a sure foundation 
for the work of grammatical analysis be laid. This being done, we 
trust tlie learner will be able, on the plan we propose, to pursue this 
study with ease, satisfaction, and rapid improvement. 

In performing these exercises, and all the exercises prescribed here- 
after, let the pupil be strictly enjoined to offer no proposition that is 
not consistent with truth, and which does not express an appropriate 
thought — in other words, good sense. If this suggestion is duly re- 
garded, the performance of these tasks will lead to the easy develop- 
ment and improvement of the rational powers of younger pupils; it 
will help them to acquire facility in that diificult and most valuable 
accomplishment — the correct and clear expression of their thoughts in 
writing, whilst they are pursuing, at the same time, what we beheve 
to be the most effective and systematic course of training in the gram- 
matical knowledge of their own language. 

§ 16. (1) The use or purpose which a ivord (or a class of words) 
serves in discourse, that is, in forming propositions, we shall here- 
after, for the sake of greater precision and brevity, call the function 
of the word, or class of words. (2) Words are di\T.ded into several 
classes, in reference to the distinct functions which they perform. 
(3) These classes are commonly called " The Parts of Speech." 

(4) In our survey of the essential parts of an assertive proposition 
in its most simple form, two of these classes of words (and these the 
two most important) have been brought under our view ; namely, 
those which perform the function of subjects of propositions, and 
those which perform the double function of indicating assertion and 
expressing (in whole or in part) the predicate or thing asserted. 
(5) These two classes of words are essentially distinct, and never 
interchange functions with each other. The words w^hich express 
subjects cannot be employed, at least in the same sense, to express 

§ 16. (1) What is meant by the function of a word? (2) On what principle, or in re- 
ference to what fact, are words classed by grammarians ? (3) What are these classes of 
words usually called ? 

(4) Tell how many kinds, or classes of words are used in the most simple proposition, 
and the functions which they perform. (5) Can these classes of words exchange places ? 



§ 1*7.] OF PROPOSITIONS. Il 

assertion, nor tliose which express assertion to express the subjects 
of propositions. The learner will find no difficulty in distinguishing 
these two kinds of words when presented together. (6) There are, 
indeed, many words in our language which, having a double mean- 
ing, are employed for both purposes. (Y) For example, cook, the 
name applied to the person who prepares food by fire, and cook, 
employed to assert the act of cooking, or preparing food by fire, as 
in the assertion, Men cook their food ; work, the name applied to 
that which is the efi'ect or result of working, and work, employed to 
assert the act of working, as, for instance, in the proposition, These 
honest men work faithfully. (8) The marked diff"erence oi function, 
and the position in the arrangement of the parts of the proposition, 
prevent all danger of being deceived by these signs of double 
meaning. 

§ 17. [(1) The names subject, predicate, and copula, which we 
have used above to indicate the parts of propositions, refer properly 
to the things signified by the words employed to express these parts 
— not to the words, or signs themselves. (2) Sometimes, indeed, 
they are employed to indicate the word or sign, as well as that 
which it expresses. Or rather the terms subject and predicate are 
employed in an ambiguous manner to express both at once, neglect- 
ing the discrimination between the sign and the thing signified. 
Such employment of these terms naturally leads to confusion of 
thought. We require for the purposes of grammatical analysis 
such names for the classes of words, as shall indicate with precision 
that we intend to refer to the signs or words themselves, and not to 
the things signified by these words.] 

(3) Grammarians have called that class of words which ex- 
presses the subjects of propositions, nouns — that is, names. [(4) 
Noun (nam), is a term borrowed from the French language, in 
which it means simply name. The grammars of many languages 

Answer. No ; they " are essentially distinct," &c, (6) Do words the same, as to sound, 
sometimes perform both /^w^c#^(5TCS? (7) Illustrate by examples. (8) What prevents the 
danger of being deceived by these signs of double meaning? 

§ 17. [(1) To what do the names Subjectj Predicate, and Copula properly refer ? (2) 
Why are other names necessary for the classes of words which express the several parts of 
Propositions ?] 

(3) What name have grammarians given to the class of words which expresses the sub- 
jects of Propositions ? [(4) TeU the origin and explain the meaning of the term noun.] 



18 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 18. 

indicate this class of words by the term which in those languages 
signifies name. It would perhaps conduce to perspicuity, if we also 
called this class of words by our own plain English term names. 
But long usage has given a kind of prescriptive right to the term 
noun^ (5) Sometimes the Grammarians call them substantive 
NOUNS, to distinguish them from another class of nouns, which is 
not used to express the subjects of propositions. We shall call them 
simply nouns, and sometimes substantives, employing these terms 
(perhaps improperly), like most of the Grammarians of the present 
day, as of equivalent meaning. 

§ 18. (1) Those words which are used to express assertion, or 
to represent the copula and the predicate, in whole or in part, are 
called by the Grammarians verbs. (2) Verb is a term derived, 
hke most of om* grammatical terms, from the Latin language, and 
means word. This name is intended to indicate that the kind of 
sign to which it is applied is pre-eminently the word (a). 

As verds are employed always in assertive propositions only for the 
purpose of expressing the assertive part, we may in our analysis of 
propositions designate them simply by their name — verbs. But as 
nouns perform a variety of functions in the construction of proposi- 
tions (3), whenever a noun is employed as subject, or leading ^art {nu- 
cleus) of the subject of a proposition, we shall call it the subject noun, 
to distinguish it from nouns employed for other purposes. (4) In 
writing the analysis of a proposition, it wiU be convenient to express 
the word subject by the abbreviation or symbol 8. ; subject noun by 
the abbreviation S. N., verb by F., BlTi.^ predicate and copula, when we 
have occasion to use them in written exercises, by P. and C. 

The pupil should now learn to point out the subject noun and the 
'oerb in the assertive propositions contained in any of the exercises 
given in the subsequent pages, or in his reading book. Let this ex- 
ercise be continued with pupils beginning the study of grammar, till 

JSToTE (a). The old grammarians gave the name verb to this class of 
words, because the force and energy of every assertion — of all discourse — is 
contained in the assertive word. " Videlicet quod in veebis vim sermonis * * 
* -jf * ■» * « esse judicaverunt." — Quintilian, I; 4; 18. 

(5) By what other name are nouns sometimes called ? 

§ 18. (1) What name is given to the class of words which expresses assertion ? 
(2) What does the term yeeb mean, and what does it indicate in reference to the class of 
signs to which it has been applied by the ancient grammarians ? 



§ 19.] OF PROPOSITIONS. 19 

they can, without hesitation, indicate the subject noun and the verl in 
each proposition. When these parts of a proposition can be promptly 
discovered, the first step (and the most important step of all) in gram- 
mar is fairly accomplished — a step essential to all satisfactory progress, 
and which prepares the way for every step that follows. After hav- 
ing spent months — sometimes, after having spent years — in attempt- 
ing to learn grammar, young pupils do not succeed in accomphshing 
so much as this. Yet we hope that every intelligent pupil will be sur- 
prised to find this important step so easily made by the method here 
recommended, and under the guidance of a skilful and persevering 
instructor. 

§ 19. (1) Nouns and verhs are, in all respects, by far the most 
important classes of words in every language. (2) As we have 
already seen, they serve to constitute a considerable number of 
complete propositions, without the assistance of any other kind of 
words. But this is not all. They enter as the essential parts into 
every proposition, which we use in discourse. They form, as it 
were, the framework on which all propositions are built. No pro- 
position can be formed without a subject noun (or what for the time 
performs the function of a subject noun), and a verb expressed or 
implied. (3) The first things, therefore, to be sought in the analy- 
sis of every proposition are the verb and the subject noun. (4) In 
fact, all the words employed in constructing even the most compli- 
cated propositions, are either 1st, The subject noun, or the verb ; or, 
2nd, Words designed to modify, limit, explain either the subject 
noun or the verb — that is, to complete the subject and predicate re- 
spectively ; or, 3d, Words employed to connect propositions with one 
another ; and this also, most frequently, for the same purpose of 
completing the subject or the predicate of the proposition, with 
which the attached proposition is united by these connective words. 
More briefly, if we except connectives employed to unite independ- 
ent propositions, all discourse, so far as it consists of propositions, is 
made up of nouns and verbs, and the luords which are employed to 

(3) How is a noun distinguished when employed as subject or leading part of the sub- 
ject of a proposition ? (4) By what abbreviations are siibject, sailiject noim, verb, predi- 
cate and copula to be represented respectively in written analyses ? 

§ 19. (1) What is said of the importance of nouns and verbs compared with other classes 
of words ? (2) Tell what is said to illustrate the importance of nouns andverhs. (3) What 
are the first things to be sought in the analysis of a proposition ? (4) For what purposes 



20 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 19. 

modify nouns and verbs, (o) It will be found presently that nouns 
not only perform the function of expressing the subjects, or leading 
part of the subjects of propositions, but are also largely employed 
for the purpose of modifying or completing the subjects and the 
predicates of propositions. (6) When, in addition to this, we con- 
sider that the verh is the predicate wdth an assumed assertive form, 
and that the predicate itself is a noun of a particular kind (see § 
27), we may judge how largely nouns figure in the formation of 
propositions, and (what is nearly the same thing) in constituting 
discourse. 

To present the names and definitions of all the parts of speech to 
the young learner at this stage of his progress, appears to us injudi- 
cious, and is inconsistent with our plan. These strange names and 
definitions cannot but appear unmeaning and repulsive till the w'ant 
of them is felt, till the pupil has occasion to employ them to facilitate 
his progress. To burden the memory with unknown terms, and de- 
finitions as yet incomprehensible, is needlessly to render the study of 
grammar disgusting to the youthful mind. In conformity with these 
views, we shaU confine our attention, for some time to come, exclu- 
sively to the two important classes of words already presented — the 
nouns and the fier'hs. 

The noun we proceed to consider first, and for the present, only 
in its main function of subject noun. The manner of distinguishing 
nouns from other words ; the classification of nouns so far as it ap- 
pears important for grammatical purposes ; and the modifications of 
form to which they are subjected, whilst employed as subject nouns, 
must come briefly under our notice. Our attention must also be inci- 
dentally directed to another class of words ser^dng to modify nouns, 
namely, determinative adjectives, as without reference to these, some 
of the peculiar uses of nouns cannot be fully explained. For more 
extended discussion of these points, we must refer the reader to 
§ 91 ; and Additional Observations on Determinative Adjectives, 
§158. 

are other -words, besides the siibject noiim, and vei't, employed in propositions ? (5) What 
other functions do noutis perform in the construction of propositions besides that of siib- 
ject 'Tioun f (6) Is the noun, besides this, a constituent part of verhs ? Yes ; all verbs may 
be considered as nouns (of a particular class) with an assertive form.] 



CHAPTER II 

OF NOUNS. 

DEFINITION OF NOUNS. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. MODIFICATION 

OF THE FORM OF THE SUBJECT NOUN TO EXPRESS PLURALITY. 

§ 20. [(1) A com,iolete definition of nouns ought to embrace all 
the functions which they perform in discourse. (2) But as a full 
definition of this sort would be unmanageable in practice on account 
of its length, we substitute for the present one embracing only the 
great distinguishing function of nouns. This definition follows na- 
turally, and will be easily understood from what we have said in 
the preceding chapter.] 

(3) Nouns are words which express the subjects of propositions. 
Any single word which, without another sign implied, customarily 
serves to represent the subject, or the leading part of the subject of 
a proposition, is to be classed as a noun. (4) This definition will 
include all names of persons, places, things, notions or conceptions 
of the human mind, of which we ever have occasion to make 
an assertion — to say any thing. (5) When words, not commonly 
used or recognized as nouns, serve to express the subjects of propo- 
sitions, they are said to be employed substantively ; they perform 
on such occasions the functions of nouns. Whatever may be their 
more common use, and their generally received name and clas- 
sification, they are, /or the time, noun^ and, in the analysis of lan- 
guage, must be considered and treated as nouns. (6) A phrase or 
an entire proposition sometimes serves as the subject of another 
proposition, and is then said to be used substantively — that is, em- 



§20. [(1) What should a complete definition^ of nouns embrace? (2) State the objec- 
tion to a complete definition.] 

(3) Give a definition embracing the main function of nouns. (4) What will this defini- 
tion taclude ? (5) What is meant by words mnployed substantively ? 

(6) What is meant by a phrase, or a proposition being used substantively ? 



22 



STRUCTL'RE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 21. 



ployed as a noun. (Y) For example, To see the sun is pleasant 
The subject of tliis proposition is the phrase, '* To see the sun^ Be- 
ing pleasant is asserted of that which this phrase expresses. Again, 
in the proposition, That vanity is ridiculous is generally admitted, 
the subject of the main proposition is, ''Vanity is ridiculous,'' v^hich 
words themselves form a complete proposition, because they contain 
an assertion. 

(8) It will be observed that we have here used the term phrase, 
to designate a regularly arranged combination of words, which does 
not constitute a complete proposition, or express an assertion. We 
may sometimes find occasion to use this term again, in the same 
sense. 

§ 21. In making the assertion that all words, which, singly em- 
ployed, express the subject of an assertion, are nouns, we contemplate 
words only, as used for the proper purpose which they are designed to 
serve in language, namely, as signs of thought. Every word whatever, 
or even any syllable or letter of a word, when employed merely to 
indicate the spoken or vn:itten sign itself, and not that which it usually 
signifies, may serve as the subject of a proposition. Thus we may say 
of the verb tJiinTc considered merely as a wcahle or word, ThinTc is a 
verb ; thinJc is a word of one syllable ; thinTc is a word expressed in writ- 
ing l)y five letters, &c. But the word tJiinlc, employed alone, and as 
significant of what it usually indicates, cannot be made the subject 
noun of any proposition. "We can neither say that thinh (with its 
proper significance) is, or that thinh does any thing.* 

When a word is used in grammatical and philological discussions. 



* We have used the Hmitation, " employed alone" because, if we place 
tbe little particle to before thinJc,it becomes what we shall call a, verbal noun, 
and may be used as the subject, or leading part of the subject, of an asser- 
tive proposition ; as. To think correctly is a rare accomplishment. Here, To 
thinTc correctly is the subject of ttie proposition, and To think the leading 
part of the subject, to which " correctly" is superadded as a modification. 
Again, a proposition, of which think is the verb, might be employed as 
subject of another proposition ; as. That William thinks his brother to be 
vjrong, is well known to his intimate friends. Here the proposition, " Wil- 
liam thinks his brother to be wrong" is used substantively, and, as subject of 
the assertion, " is well known to his intimate friends." 

(7) Give examples. 

(S) "What is the difference bet-ween a phrase and a proposition ? 



§ 22.] OF NOUNS. 23 

not as the sign of the conception which it usually indicates, hut, as 
above, to represent the sign or word itself, it is said to he taken or em- 
ployed materiaMter or technically. Employed in this way, every word 
becomes for the time a noun^ that is, the name of itself, the name of 
the uttered or written sign, not of that which it has been invented to 
represent. 

We are not to be understood as asserting universally that every 
single word, entitled to the name of noun^ is capable of serving as the 
subject noun of a proposition. A word which performs any of the 
functions (to be enumerated hereafter) peculiar to nouns^ must be 
classed among nouns. For example, we would class the word while 
among nouns (though in modern English it is never used, and could 
not now with propriety be used, as the subject noun of a proposition), 
because it manifestly performs the function of a noun in completing 
the predicates of certain propositions : as, He remained a wliile^ I will 
come after a while^ &c. When a subject noun^ of the same meaning 
with wJiile^ is wanted, we employ the word time. That while serves 
not as a subject noun^ is to be attributed to a rare accident in lan- 
guage. 

A full definition of nouns, as we have already said, ought to em- 
brace all the functions which they perform in discourse. The defini- 
tion above given we do not offer as complete, but as sufficient for the 
learner's guidance in distinguishing nouns. There are very few nouns, 
indeed, which cannot be readily ascertained to be such by the test we 
have adopted ; and if they cannot, it is only because, like the word 
while^ they have fallen intd disuse in their prominent function of serv- 
ing as subjects of propositions, and, in this respect, have given place to 
some more modern term. 

§ 22, When the learner meets a word manifestly intended to ex- 
press the subject of an assertion, or the leading part of the subject — 
that part which all the words making up the complete subject regard, 
modify, limit or describe — he can have no room to doubt what he 
should call it. It is a noun^ or a word or combination of words, for 
the time used as a noun. Whether a word, employed for a different 
purpose from that of subject noun, is a noun, may be readily ascertained, 
in nearly all cases, by trying whether it can serve as the subject noun 
of a proposition, or, in other words, by trying whether an assertion 
can be made in regard to that wjiich it expresses — whether it can be 
said of it, that it is^ or is not something, or that it does^ or does not do 
something.* 

* A practical rule, commonly given for the purpose of distinguishing 



24 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§22. 

The rule to determine wliether a word is to be classed among 
nouns may be given in the following brief form : (1) Every word 
which, alone and without any word implied, expresses what can he 
made the subject or leading part of the subject of a proposition or 
assertion, is a noun.* 

ExEEOiSE. — ^Let the learner point out the nouns in the following 
passage, and show that the test given in the above rule apphes to 
each of them : — 

" Columbus was not ignorant of the mutinous disposition of his crew, 
but he still maintained a serene and steady countenance ; soothing 
some with gentle words ; endeavoring to stimulate the pride or avarice 
of others, and openly menacing the refractory with signal punishment, 
should they do any thing to impede the voyage." 

Model of "Exaattn^attox. — ^Point out the first noun in this passage. 
Ans. Columl)U8. — How do you ascertain that Columbus is a noun ? 
Ans. From the fact that it expresses the subject of the proposition, 
" Columbus was not ignorant,'''' &c. — Point out the next noun in the 
passage. Ans. " Disposition." — Why class this as a noun ? Ans. Be- 
cause it will serve to express the leading part of the subject, or, in 
other words, serves as subject noun, for example, in the following pro- 
position. The disposition of his crew was mutinous. " Grew'''' is a noun ; 

In the next proposition, He 



nouns, is, to try whether they will make sense when imited with a determi- 
native or descriptive adjective — classes of words which we shall come to 
consider hereafter — ^in other words, to try whether they admit of being 
modified by these classes of words. This rule, besides the objection that it 
is indhect and mechanical, fails in regard of at least one large class of words 
now recognized by the best grammarians as nouns, viz., those words which 
have usually been called the infinitives of verbs ; and it apphes very clumsily 
to many proper names of persons, places, (fee. It will exercise the rational 
powers of the learner to much better purpose to apply the test, Is this word 
the subject noun of the proposition which I am analyzing, or, if not, can it 
(stripped, if necessary, of case ending or inflexion) he made the subject noun 
of some other proposition — that is, can any thing he asserted of it? 

* The learner will find afterward that for some purposes nouns take cer- 
taui inflexions, of which they must be stripped before they can serve as sub- 
ject nouns. This fact will, in the end, present Uttle difficulty, and it is unne- 
cessary, at this point of our progress, to perplex the pupil by embracing it in 
our rule. 



■ 22. (1) Eepeat the rule to determine -^-hether a given word is a ■ 



§ 24.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 25 

is a noun, according to our definition (and may be so called till the 
learner finds a special name for it), because it expresses the subject of 
the proposition, " He still maintained a serene and steady countenance." 
The word "7iis " in the preceding proposition may be passed over for 
the present, though, if an inflected form of lie^ it has claims to be 
classed as a noun. 

§ 23. Classification of Kouns. — Some knowledge of the classi- 
fication of nouns is necessary in order to comprehend certain modifi- 
cations, of which they are susceptible, by a change of form, or by the 
addition of other words, to fit them to express the various subjects of 
human thought. But it may be useful, thus early, to dwell longer on 
the classification of nouns, than would be absolutely necessary for the 
purpose mentioned, because, next to a careful application of the test 
already given, a review of the several kinds of nouns will, more than 
any thing else, assist the young learner in distinguishing readily this 
important class of words. Besides, it is requisite for other reasons 
connected with our method of treating grammar to give in this place 
more extended notice to some of the classes which we shall designate. 

g 24. First Class : Concrete ISTouns, or Names of Substan- 
ces. — (1) The names of substances^ material and immaterial, consti- 
tute the most prominent class of nouns. (2) We use the word sub- 
stance here in the philosophical sense to indicate what subsists by 
itself — what has, or is conceived to have, an independent existence. 
(3) This class includes the names of all persons, animals, places, of 
all the objects around us in the universe, whether formed by our 
Creator, or by the skill, industry, and contrivance of man — in a 
word, every thing which appears to our senses as a separate inde- 
pendent object of contemplation, or which is conceived by the mind 
as such, as God, angels, souls of men, &c. (4) These are called con- 
crete nouns, or names of substances. 

Exercise I. — Let the pupil point out the concrete nouns, or names 
of substances in the following extract : — 

" On the right, amid a profusion of thickets, knolls, and crags, lay 
the bed of a broad mountain lake, lightly curled into tiny waves by 
the breath of the morning breeze, each glittering in its course under 

§ 24. (1) What words constitute the most prominent class of nouns? (2) In what sense 
is the word svl)stanc6 here used, and what does it mean or indicate ? (3) Enumerate some 
of the kinds of names which belong to this class. (4) What is the name given to this class 
of nouns ? 



26 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 26. 

the influence of the sunbeams. High hills, rocks, and banks waving 
with natural forests of birch and oak, formed the borders of this en- 
chanting sheet of water ; and, as their leaves rustled in the wind, and 
twinkled in the sun, gave to the depth of sohtude a sort of hfe and 
vivacity." 

Exercise II. — Let the pupil write a given number of examples of 
concrete nouns. This exercise, in the case of young pupils, may, with 
advantage, be often repeated. Each time it may be prescribed to give 
a number of examples from one subdivision of these names. 1st, 
names of persons ; 2d, names of animals ; 3d, names of places ; 4th, 
names of things of natural production, as minerals, plants, &c. ; 5th, 
names of things of artificial production ; 6th, names of spiritual, or 
immaterial substances. 

§ 25. Collective Nouns. — What are called collective nouns 
may be regarded (1) as a peculiar subdivision of the names of sub- 
stances. (2) The collectives claim our notice, because some of 
them are occasionally so employed as to give rise to certain pecu- 
liarities of construction, as we shall find hereafter ; (§56, rule II.) 
(3) They are called collectives, because they express an assemblage 
of objects contemplated by the mind as forming a single conception, 
and capable of being embraced collectively under the same assertion. 
The individual objects which form such assemblages are contem- 
plated as united together by some common bond, or for some com- 
mon purpose, and we appropriate to them, as thus united, a collective 
name. (4) We have examples in the words, army, meaning an or- 
ganized collection of soldiers ; navy, a collection of ships and sea- 
men ; society, ^mrty, pourliament, congress, council, mob, group, crowd, 
horde, host, &c. 

Exercise. — ^Let the pupil give a written list of collective nouns. 

§ 26. (1) Second Class : Abstract Nouns. — The names given 
to qualities, properties, or attributes, abstractly considered ; that is, 
considered separately from the substances, or objects in which they are 
found, constitute a second class of nouns very distinct from the former. 
(2) Some of these qualities, or properties, are perceived by the 

§ 25. (1) How may collective nouns be regarded ? (2) Why does this subdivision of 
nouns claim a share of our notice ? (3) Why are these nouns called collectives ? (4) Give 
examples of collective nouns. 

§ 26. (1) What words constitute the second cla^s of nouns ? (2) Eecite the illustra- 



§ 27.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 27 

senses, as, for example, the properties of external bodies — hardness, 
softness, the various colors^ &c. Others are made known to us by 
the help of an intellectual process, as, for example, the various pro- 
perties or attributes of human minds — emotions, passions, feelings, 
affections, virtues, vices, &c. These attributes or properties, whether 
of matter or of mind, have obviously no independent existence. 
They all subsist only in connection with substances, and, apart from 
these, they have no real being. (3) But we often find it convenient 
to contemplate these properties separately, or abstracted from the 
substances in which they exist, and to discourse of them as thus 
viewed. Hence we give them names, and express our thoughts of 
them in propositions, in the same manner as we do of substances. 
(4) To distinguish this class of names from the names of substances, 
they are commonly called abstract nouns. Or they may be called 
NAMES OF ATTRIBUTES ; that is, of those qualities or properties 
which we attribute to substances. 

Exercise I. — Point out the nouns in the following sentences, and 
distinguish the abstract names from the names of substances : — 

" Whatever promotes and strengthens virtue, whatever calms and 
regulates the temper, is a source of happiness. Devotion produces 
these effects in a remarkable degree. It inspires composure of spirit, 
mildness and benignity ; weakens the painful, and cherishes the pleas- 
ing emotions ; and, by these means, carries on the life of a pious man 
in a smooth and placid tenor " 

The pupil will call " whatever" a noun, since it expresses the sub- 
ject of several propositions in the beginning of this passage, but he 
need not give himself any trouble for the present to determine to what 
class of nouns it belongs. 

Exercises II. III., &c. — "Write out a given number of abstract 
nouns. 1st. Names of sensible or external attributes. 2d. Names of 
spiritual or mental attributes, or such as are perceived by the help of 
an intellectual process. 

§ 27. (1) Verbal Nouns. — What are called verbal nouns may 
be considered as a peculiar subdivision of abstract nouns, or names 



tions and examples given above and suggest others. (3) Account for the formation of this 
class of nouns. (4) By what names are they called ? 
§ 27, (1) How may verbal nmms be considered ? 



28 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 27. 

of attributes subjectively employed.* (2) These are called ver^ 
bals, because they exj^ress substantively, or subjectively, tliat which 
is expressed assertively by their kindred verbs. 

The name verbal seems intended to imply that these nouns are de- 
rived from verbs. But, on the contrary, terbs tJiemsehes may, with 
more propriety, be considered as these (so called) 'cerbal nouns with 
an assumed assertive form. " A verb is a noun and something more." 
It is a noun with an indication of assertion superadded. This indica- 
tion is nsually expressed by the form of the verb in most languages ; 
but in English for want of verbal terminations, or, rather, through 
disuse of those formerly employed, we are often left to determine fi-om 
the construction whether a word is assertively nsed or not — that is, 
whether it is a verb or not. It is easy, however, to distiuguish the 
verbal nouns we are now considering from the verb. The one is 
generally marked by its prefixed particle to, and when this is omitted, 
as after certain verbs (chiefly those called auxiliary), its relation to 
these verbs prevents all mistake ; the other verbal is distinguished by 
its invariable termination ing from the verb, though not from the ver- 
bal adjective or participle. 

(3) We have in the English language two of these verbals for 
every verb, with the exception of four or five very peculiar verbs of 
the class called auxiliary verbs — may, can, shall, must. These 
and will in its auxiliary sense have no correspondent verbals. 

(4) One of these verbals consists of what is called the root, or 
radical form of the verb, generally, with the particle to prefixed. 
The other consists of the radical form with the termination ing af- 
fixed. For example, from the root read we have the two verbals, 
to read d^ndi reading ; irom. p?int, to 2yTioit and printing. (5) When 



* That is, if being and actiny are to be admitted among properties 
or attributes of things substantial. If not, the verbals are entitled to be 
admitted as a sep'arate class. But whether we regard them as a subdivision 
of abstract nouns, or as a distinct class, they claim the particular attention 
of the learner on account of the peculiar modes of expression and forms 
of construction which arise from their use in language. 



(2) Why is this class of words called t^srbals f 

(3) How many verbal Jioum are connected with each verb ? (4) Describe these ver- 
ials-and give examples. (5) Notice the exception in forming the written verbal in ing. 



§ 27.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 29 

the written radical form of the verb ends in an e mute (that is, not 
sounded), this e is omitted before the termination ing. 

(6) The form consisting of the root with the particle to prefixed, 
is commonly called the infinitive mode of the verb. (7) But it can- 
not be classed as a verb, consistently with the definition already 
given, since it does not express assertion. (8) On the contrary, it 
is always employed to perform the function of a noun — sometimes 
that of a subject noun^ most frequently that of modifying or com- 
vleting a verb. (9) In performing this latter function after some 
few verbs (mostly auxiliaries), the particle to is omitted, and the 
bare root employed ; as, he co,n iiEAD=Ae is able to read. He 
must go; men dare undertake, &LQ,.,=men dare to undertake. 
(10) As this class of words has been so long known by the name 
of infinitives of verbs, we shall continue to call them infinitives, 
whenever we have occasion to distinguish them from other nouns ; 
but by so doing we must not be understood as admitting them to 
be verbs. 

(11) The verbal in ing (as we have remarked in § 14: 5),"^ 
very exactly expresses in English that which is predicated — that 
part of the predicate, which is contained in the kindred verb. (1 2) 
For example, John writes. What is asserted of John in this pro- 
position, is precisely that action, which is expressed by the noun 
writing. In other words, writing expresses a well-known act sub- 
stantively, or subjectively — that is, in the form to be employed as 
the subject of an assertion. Writes expresses the same act assert- 
ively. (13) In many languages the infinitives express precisely in 
a substantive, or subjective form, that which is expressed assertively 



* The first niimber, when we use two numbers in a reference, is the 
number of the section, and the second is the number intended to direct the 
learner to the answers of the subjoined questions. We may find it conven- 
ient to use these numbers, sometimes, to refer more exactly to the part of 
the section which explains any point under consideration. 



(6) By what name is the first of these two verbals called ? (T) State the objection to 
classing it as a verb. (8) What functions does it perform ? (9) Is it always preceded by 
the particle to f Mention exceptions. Give examples. (10) When we call this class of 
verbals injinilmes, do we admit them to be verbs ? (11) What does the verbal in ing 
express ? (12) Give example and illustrate. (13) What do the Infinitives of many languages 



30 STEUCTUKE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 2*1. 

by tlie verb. (14) The verbal ui ixg, employed as subject noun 
of a proposition, sometimes admits of being interchanged with the 
infinitive; as, Seeing- the sun is pleasant, or To see the sun is 
pleasant. (15) With this exception, these verbals generally per- 
form distinct functions (as we shall see hereafter), and the one can- 
not (with propriety) be substituted for the other. (16) The verbal 
in incf is sometimes called the gerund. This is the name given to a 
form of hke use and signification in the Latin language, and it may 
sometimes be conveniently employed to distinguish this class of 
verbals, as the term infinitives is used to distinguish the other. 

(17) These verbals differ fi'om other nouns, in being capable of 
taMng the same forms of complements, or the same kinds of words 
to modifv them as theu- kindred verbs. This fact will be considered 
and accounted for ia treating of complements or modifications. 
(See § 76 : 32, et seq.) 

(18) There are sometimes other nouns formed from the verbs, or 
perhaps we should rather say in most cases from these verbals, which 
might from their connection with verbs be also called verbal nouns. 
Both verbs and verbals sometimes originate from a noun that has 
nothing to do in its proper sense with the expression of action ; as 
from the noun ei/e, we have the verb to eye, fi-om hand to hand, <fec. 
But such nouns are in no sense verbals. We only caU those ver- 
bals which express in some form the action of their Idndred verbs. 
For example, act, actor, action, agent, aU connected with the verbal 
to act in form, and boiTOwing an essential part of their significance 
from it ; and command, cornraand.ment, coniraander, connected with 
the verbal to coniniand. It is not. however, necessary to form ver- 
bals of this kind into a distinct class, or to oive them any special 
notice, as there is nothing pecuhar in their gi-ammatical functions, 
and as all grammarians agTee in arrangino; them amono; the 
nouns. 

(19) It may also be observed, to guard against mistakes, that 

express? (14) Can verbals in ivg and infinitives be interchanged, or substitatei for each 
other, and. if so, under what circninstances ? (15) Can the one zerhul be generally substi- 
tnted for the other ? (16) Bv what name is the verbal in ing sometimes called ? 

(17) What peculiarity distinguishes these verl>aU from other nouns ? 

(15) Are there other verbals besides the infinitives and gemnd-s f Tell what is said of 
them, and give examples. 

(19) Are all nouns formed by the union of the roots of verbs %vith the termination ing to 



§ 27.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 31 

all nouns made by tlie union of the roots of verbs and the termina- 
tion ing^ do not belong to the class of verbals in ing or gerunds^ 
though exactly agreeing with them in form. Concrete nouns are 
sometimes formed by adding ing to the root of the verb, as build- 
ing, a something built; altogether distinct in meaning from the 
gerund building, the act asserted by the verb build ; in the same 
manner many of these words in ing are used both as verbals and 
in another and often a concrete sense ; for example, lodging, begiii- 
ning, painting, &c. Let it be remembered that the verbals, which 
alone merit special attention on account of their peculiar relation to 
the verbs in meaning and in the modifications which they admit in 
common, are those which express that substantively which the verbs 
express assertively. 

(20) Care must also be taken to distinguish these verbal nouns 
in ing from the verbal adjectives or participles which in modern 
Enghsh agree with them in form. 

Note. — The forms were originally distinct in our language, as the cor- 
responding forms are still in the sister dialects. The tierbal is not the 
participle usurped substantively, as most grammarians have incor- 
rectly asserted. The 'oerbal nouns had a place in the language in their 
present form — ending in ing- or uNa centuries before verbal adjectives 
or participles had assumed or borrowed this ending. 

The present, or rather imperfect participle, in Anglo-Saxon termi- 
nates in ende, and the termination ende or end, more frequently writ- 
ten ande or and, was retained in old English, and consequently the 
distinction in form between these participles and the verbal nouns in 
ing till near the times of Wiclif and Chaucer. Participles in and oc- 
cur in authors who wrote in the northern parts of Britain till a much 
later period. "We subjoin examples from an old gloss which we find 
quoted in Bagster''s Eexapla, p. 7 : " And he prechyde sayande, a 
stalworther thane I schal come efter me, of whom I am not worthi 
downfallande or kneelande,'''' &c. " And pleside to Harowde, and also 
to the sittande at mete," &c. Observe that in the last quotation the 
participle sittande is employed substantively to mean the persons sit- 
ting at meat. If our nouns in ing had been, as supposed by the gram- 
be classed as gerunds ? Tell what is said of other nouns so formed, and how the gerimd 
may be distinguished from them. 

(20) What other class of words has assumed the same form with the gerunds, and how 
are the gerunds to be distinguished from these ? 



32 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 27. 

marians, participles used substantively, this, of whicli we have here 
an example, must have been their use, viz., tc indicate, not the ab- 
stract action of the verb, as they in fact do, but, as here, the agent or 
actor. This is invariably the use of the corresponding participle, em- 
ployed substantively in all other languages. "We select from Mr. R. 
Taylor, to whom we are indebted for a complete elucidation of this 
matter, a few examples in which the verbal noun and the participle 
both occur in their distinct forms : 



Such thyngis that are ]ikand 



Tyll mannys herj'Jis' are plesctTi^?." — Barb. Bruce (1357), b. 1, 1. 9. 
" Hors, or hund, or othir thing, 

That war -plesand to thar liking." — Barb. Bruce, L 207. 
" Full low mcliRand to their queen full clear, 

Whom for their noble nourishm^ they thank." — Dunbar. 

See more examples, and a full and (to me) satisfactory exposition 
of this matter in Mr. Taylor's valuable additional notes to the Diver- 
sions of Purley.— r. Tegg, Lond. 1840. 

The learner will distinguish the verbal noun from the verbal ad- 
jective, by the test given above (§ 20 : 3), and from the other nouns 
in inff, by attending to the remarks we have just been making on 
these nouns. 

Exercise I. — Let the learner distinguish the gerunds from the 
other nouns in zVi^, and from the verbal adjectives in the following 
sentences. To assist in distinguishing the nouns from the verbal ad- 
jectives, we use the former only in their fxmction of subject nouns. 
If, therefore, the word in ing is subject or main part of the subject of 
the proposition, it is a noun (whether gerund or not remains for the 
pupil to determine) ; if, on the contrary, some other word is the main 
part of the subject, the word in ing is a verbal adjective. "When the 
word in ijig can take an injinitive as a substitute, it is a gerund. 

This writing is blotted. The boy writing to his father told him, 
tfec. "Writing is a fatiguing employment. The beginning of the ex- 
ercise is better than the end. Beginning a good course requires effort. 
Telling falsehoods is mean. Speaking the truth is commendable. The 
man saying this departs. Saying and doing are very different things. 
This saying is hard. Loving our enemies is a difficult duty. Eead- 
ing is less laborious than writing. "Wasting time is as bad as wasting 
money. Giving is sometimes easier than forgiving ; and forgiving is 
easier than forgetting. 

In going through the preceding exercise, it will be proper 



§ 28.] CLASBIFICATION OF NOUNS. 33 

to point out the verb first in each proposition, and next the sub- 
ject noun. Next show to which class the word ending in ing be- 
longs. 

Model. — " This writing is blotted." Which is the verb, or asser- 
tive word? Ans. Is. 'Wh.iob.iQihQ subject noun? Ans. '•'' Writing ^^"^ 
Ncause it is about writing that the assertion in the proposition is 
made. Is writing here the gerund? Ans. Ko; because it does not 
mean the action writing, but something that is written. It is here a 
concrete noun or name of a substance. Observe that several of the 
propositions at the end are double propositions, one of the verbs being 
suppressed. " Eeading is less laborious than writing." Supply is af- 
ter writing ; and so of the rest. 

ExEEOiSE II. — ^Point out, or rather write out all the infinitives and 
gerunds in a given portion of any book used by the pupil or by a class 
of pupils. 

ExEECisE III. — Form a given number of propositions with infini- 
tives or gerunds for their siibjects. Let the learner continue these ex- 
ercises till he becomes perfectly familiar with this class of words. 

§ 28. Third Class : Pronouns. (1) Another class of words 
comes under our definition of nouns (that is, of words which serve to 
express the subjects or leading parts of the subjects of propositions), 
which, because of their peculiar function in language, have been 
generally treated as a distinct part of speech. Some have called 
them, very appropriately, nouns of the second order ; but they are 
commonly known by the name of pronouns. (2) This class of 
words, as the name indicates (pro-7ioun=to the 'EngWsh fo7^-noun), 
is employed for nouns ; that is, to represent nouns, or names. [(8) 
Let it be remembered that all the nouns, hitherto noticed, are the 
representatives, or signs of things existing in nature, or conceived 
by the mind as existing in nature. (4) These nouns, or names, are 
so associated with the things, classes of things, substances, attributes, 
existences, &c., which they represent, that, when uttered, they serve 
to recall them to the minds of those who understand the particular 
language to which these names belong. (5) The pronouns, on the 

§ 28. (1) What is said of a third class of words, which come under our definition of 
nouns ; and what have they heen commonly called ? (2) Tell what the name pronoim 
signifies, and the purpose for which this class of words is employed ? [(3) Of what are the 
nmms hitherto noticed the signs ? (4) What is said in illustration of the connection be- 
tween these ??.a2<w.s and what they represent? (5) Of what are pronoims the representa- 



34 siRUCiURE or language. [§ 28. 

contrary, are only the rejrresentatives of nouns, not the cUrect signs 
of things. (6) As the same pronoun may be used to represent an 
unlimited number of nouns, that is, the names of an unlimited va- 
riety of things, the ^ro/ioi//i.s are not associated in the memory, by 
the use of language, with any objects or classes of objects exclu- 
'sively, but are used to represent the names, now of one, now of 
another object, or class of objects. (7) Thus every man employs 
the pronoim / to represent his own name — to indicate himself, when 
he has occasion to express any assertion of which he is the subject. 
We use thou or yovi to represent any individual whom we address. 
Thus / is employed to represent the unlimited number of individ- 
uals who may have occasion to speak of themselves ; and ttiou or 
you to represent the unhmited number of persons, to whom others 
may have occasion to address any assertion having the person or 
persons addi'essed for its subject. He, again, represents the names 
of all beings in the universe recognised as moles, when (not ad- 
dressed, but) spoken of indindually to others ; she the names of all 
ihe females ; and z"^ all objects that are not recognised as either 
male or female. So that these three little words, he, she, it, together, 
represent the names of all persons and things in the universe singly 
or individually considered ; and the single pronoun they rej^resents 
them all, when assertions are to be made in regard to a number of 
them taken together. 

(8) It follows from this accotmt of the functions of pronouns, 
that the mind must always refer back from the pronoun which 
represents the person spoken of, to the noun which it represents, in 
order to know what is intended to be designated. (9) "When lan- 
guage is skilfuUy employed, this reference can always be readily 
made by proper attention to the connection and arrangement of 
the words in discourse, and to the recognised usages of speech. 
(10) If on any occasion we cannot determine to what particidar 
noun a pronoun has reference, we fail completely of catching the 
meaning of the speaker or writer. 

tires? (6) What farther is said of the pronomis? (7) niastrate; and tell trhat the pro- 
nouns I. thou or ycni, lie, she, it, and thei/, mav severally represent. Divide the ques- 
tion. What does /represent ? &c. 

(8) How do Tve ascertain what is designated by a prononn ? (9) In what case is the ref- 
erence of a pronoun readily made, and how is it made ? (10) If we fail altogether in dis- 



§ 28.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 35 

(11) If we cannot determine this reference with certainty and 
with promptitude, we complain justly of obscur'ty. Our mind, in 
this case, is diverted from the subject matter of the discourse to the 
irksome occupation of unravelling the perplexities of the construc- 
tion — a result fatal to the success of either orator or author, except 
his matter is possessed of more than common interest, and the 
hearer or reader possessed of more than common patience. Even 
then, such obscurity occasions annoyance and waste of time, and 
sometimes greatly diminishes the effect of sound argument and 
profound research. (12) Let us here add, that there is nothing in 
which inexperienced writers more frequently fail, than in securing 
by a lucid arrangement the certain and easy reference of pronouns 
of the third person, as they are called, to the nouns which they are 
intended to represent. (13) If a writer wishes to be easily and 
clearly understood, let him take care n^ver to employ a pronoun in 
such a way, that an intelligent reader can hesitate to decide to what 
it refers. (14) It is particularly in the use of the pronouns, he^ she, 
it, and they, that this precaution is necessary. The other pronouns 
can scarcely be so employed as to occasion obscurity.] 

Note. — Much of what is said about •the pronouns seems to apply 
more strictly to what are called the pronouns of the third person — he, 
she, it, and they — than to those of the first and second persons, those 
which represent the speaker and the party addressed, /, we, thou, you. 
It may even be questioned whether the name pronoun {representative 
of noun) can with strict propriety be given to these last. They can 
scarcely be said either to stand for nouns or to refer to nouns. They 
are signs as directly indicating the parties engaged in discourse, as the 
names of these parties would be : they indicate them more clearly, 
more explicitly, than their proper names in the circumstances would 
do. There is no need of a reference to the names of the parties in 
order to understand who is designated. Nay, the names may be un- 
known, and yet no want of perspicuity be occasioned ; as when per- 
sons enter into conversation on the road, who do not know each 



covering the reference of a pronoun, what is the consequence ? (11) What is the conse- 
quence if we cannot discover it promptly? (12) In what is it alleged that inexperienced 
writers often fail? (13) Mention the precaution to be observed by a writer, that he may be 
easily and clearly understood. (14) In reference to what pronouns is this precaution par- 
ticularly required ?] 



36 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 29. 

other's names, nor perhaps wish to know them, or when the author or 
orator addresses unknown readers or hearers, or, as often happens 
in our periodicals, when the name of the author and the names of 
those whom he addresses are mutually unknown. There is then a 
marked distinction in some respects between these two classes of pro- 
nouns — those of the first and second persons, as they are called, and 
those of the third person. But in this they agree, and in this they are 
both unlike nouns, that they are not appropriated exclusively to express 
one object or one class of objects. The pronouns of the first and sec- 
ond persons are made to designate all persons who are for the time 
speakers or parties addressed, as those of the thhd designate all per- 
sons and things spoken of, exclusive of the speaker and the party ad- 
dressed. Those of the first and second persons especially, besides 
expressing the subject, indicate the part which the subject performs 
in the discourse — a service which could not be performed so readily 
by the use of the nouns which these pronouns are said to represent ; 
but which they certainly do more than merely represent. 

(15) Tho, pronouns employed as subject nouns of propositions, 
are of two distinct classes, called personal pronouns^ and relative 
pronouns. Some grammarians have given to this latter class the 
more appropriate because more characteristic name of conjunctive 
pronouns. We confine our Attention for the present to the personal 
pronouns. The conjunctive pronouns will come under our notice in 
a more suitable place, when we shall have occasion to show their 
use in the construction of compound propositions. 

§ 29. The Personal Proxouns.—(1) This class of pronouns is 
called personal because, besides performing the fimctions of nouns 
in the subjects of propositions, they indicate the peksox ov part 
which what they represent sustains in discourse."^ 



* The ancient grammarians seem to have borrowed the term per- 
son from the language of the stage, in which the players were called the 
dramatis personce, persons of the drama. (Originally persona meant the 
mask through which the actor spoke, afterwards it was employed also as a 
name for a player, for hun who wore the mask and sustained the character 
of a party in the drama.) Among the actors a first, second, <fec., persona, 



(15) How many kinds of pronouns are employed as subjects, and by what names are 
they called ? 

§ 29. (1) Why are the personal pronouns called by this name ? 



§ 29.] OF PEONOUNS. 37 

(2) These performers enacting distinct parts in discourse are, 
Jirst^ the speaker — in his own name alone, or in his own name, and 
that of others for whom he undertakes to speak — who is called 
the FIRST PERSON, as sustaining the^ir^^, or chief part in discourse ; 
second, the party (or parties when more than one) addressed, called 
the SECOND PERSON, as sustaining the second part, or part of hearers in 
discourse ; and, third, ih^ party, or parties spoken o/in discourse, when 
distinct from the speaker and the party addressed, called the third 
PERSON. [(3) Under the first and second persons are included only 
what are called persons in the common modern sense of the word 
person, or what, for the time, are conceived as performing the func- 
tions of persons, that is, the functions of rational beings using or at 
least understanding speech ; that is, such as alone can sustain a 
part in discourse. (4) When we speak to animals, they are recog- 
nised as sustaining the part of a second person, as listening to human 
discourse, and are, in such cases, addressed by the pronoun of the 
second person; as, " Sing'st thou, sweet Philomel, to me?" (5) 
The same happens in the use of tlie figure called personification, 
when we conceive, or represent insensible objects, as if they 
possessed reason, and could listen to our discourse. Sometimes 
such mute objects are represented as performing the part of speaker 
or first person. (6) Under the third person the grammarians com- 
prehend every class of beings that can become the subject of 
thought — both persons (properly so called) and things.] 

The extension of the term person, in treating of the pronouns of 
the third person, so as to comprehend beings which not only are not 
by common usage called persons, but excluded from the class of per- 
sons, has led to an ambiguous and inconsistent employment of this word 
by the grammarians. In speaking of nouThs, and especially of the per- 
sonal pronouvM, we are told that all animals and things, as well as per- 



pereon or actor, was recognised ; and this fact also seems to have been pre- 
sent to the thoughts of the grammarian who first adopted the terms first 
person, second person, third person, in treating of these pronoims. 

(2) What is the part sustained in discourse by what is called in grammar the first pee- 
BON ? What by the second peeson ? What by the thied person ? [(3) What class of 
beings alone is generally included under the Jirst and second persons? (4) Mention an 
exception. (5) Mention a second apparent exception. (6) What classes of beings are com- 
prehended under the tJiird person ?] 



38 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 30. 

sons^ are of the tLii-d loerson^ when merely spoken of; manifestly in- 
cluding animals and things in the class of persons^ as comprehended 
with them under the third person. Again, when it becomes necessary 
to distinguish the conjunctive pronouns, who and which.^ we are told 
that who applies to persons^ and which to animals or inanimate things^ 
manifestly excluding a?iM7za?s and inanimate things (in accordance with 
the commonly received usage of the term) from the class of persons. 
In these two cases the word person is employed in two senses not only 
different, but strikingly inconsistent. We cannot free ourselves 
effectually from this inconsistent employment of the term person^ 
without a considerable change in the language employed in treating of 
the persons of nouns, pronouns, and verbs ; or, in other words, of the 
parts which subjects sustain in discourse. A reformed nomenclature 
is perhaps needed in this, as in some other departments of grammar. 
Let us, in the mean time, mark and admit the extension beyond its 
usual and proper sense given to the term person^ when we speak of 
the thi7'd person of nouns or pronouns^ and guard against any confu- 
sion of thought which might arise from the ambiguous or inconsistent 
employment of this term, 

§ 30. (1) The first person, or speaker (when the subject of a 
proposition) is expressed by the pronoun I ; or, if he speaks in the 
name of others, as well as in his own name, by the pronoun we. / 
serves instead of the speaker's own proper name, and we instead of 
the speaker's name and the names of those whom he represents. (2) 
The second p)er son, or the party addressed (when the subject of a pro- 
position), is represented by the pronoun thou, or you, if a single 
individual ; if a number of individuals, by you, or ye. (3) Thou, 
except in addresses to the Deity, and in the solemn style, is almost 
out of use in the English of the present day. The same may be 
said of ye. (4) The form you has come to be universally em- 
ployed in ordinary discourse, both in addressing an individual and 
a number of persons, except among the Friends. (5) ThQ pronoun 
of the THIRD PERSON (oT party spoken of, exclusive of speaker and 
hearers), representing a single individual, has three distinct forms, 
according as the party spoken of is recognised as being of the male 

§ 30. (1) What pronoun represents the spealcer as subject of a proposition ? What pro- 
noun is used when the speaker speaks for others with himself? (2) What are the pronouns 
of the second- person f (3) What is said of the use of thot:? (4) What of the employ- 
ment of YOtr? (5) What is said of the pronoun of the third person? 



§ 30.] OF PRONOUNS. 39 

sex, or of the female sex, or as belonging to the class of things without 
sex, or in which sex is not recognised in the ordinary use of lan- 
guage. (6) He is employed in speaking of an individual male, 
SHE of an individual female, and it in speaking of things without 
life, and of animals when we do not know or do not choose to 
mark the sex. (7) When we speak of more than one individual, 
THEY is employed, as subject noun, to represent all classes of be- 
ings — persons, animals, and things, without distinction. 

(8) We may notice here the classification of nouns on the basis 
of the distinction of the two sexes, and of the absence or non-re- 
cognition of sex, commonly called by grammarians the genders of 
NOUNS. (9) The word gender (genus) means, simply, kind or class. 
(10) In English we have three genders, that is, three kinds of nouns 
in reference to sex : 1st, all males recognised as such in ordinary 
discourse (as God, angels, men, the male heathen deities, and the 
males of the nobler, and of the more conspicuous and best known 
animals), are arranged in the masculine gender, or class of males ; 
2d, all females" (as women, goddesses, and the more conspicuous 
female animals), are, in like manner, arranged in the feminine gen- 
der, or class of females ; and, 3d, all things without animal life, or 
in which sex, in the ordinary usage of language is not recognised, are 
arranged under the neuter (or neither) gender, that is, the class which 
is neither male nor female. (11) This classification is of little use 
in English, save in reference to the employment of the pronouns of 
the third person, he, she, and it, and some words of their family. 
(12) He, as will be seen from what is said above, represents nouns 
of the masculine gender, and may be called the masculine pronoun ; 
she, in like manner, represents nouns of the feminine gender, and 
maybe called \he feminine pronoun ; and ^^ represents neuter nouns, 
and may be called the neuter pronoun. (See § 157.) 



(6) What pronoun represents an individual male in the third person ? What repre- 
sents a female in like manner? What represents individually or singly things without life, 
and animals in which the sex is not kn,own or not regarded in language ? (7) For what pur- 
pose is the pronoun they employed? 

(8) What is said of the classification of nouns called the genders ? (9) What does the 
term gender mean ? (10) Describe this classification, as regards our language. (11) Is 
this classification of much importance in English ? (12) Tell what gender or class each of 
the pronouns she, he, it, represents. 



40 STRUCTUKE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 30. 

(13) The learner will please remember tliat in sll 2:>ropositions, 
J and we alone are used to represent the first person or speaker, 
singular and plural. Thou or you, alone to represent the second per- 
son or party addressed, singular or plural. (14) Nouns are never 
used to express the subjects of assertions in reference to these par- 
ties. (15) But in making assertions of parties distinct from the 
speaker and the party addressed, we use either the noun — the name 
of the person or persons, the thing or things spoken of — or we can 
use their representatives, the pronouns he, she, it, and thei/ (when no 
obscurity is occasioned), as subject nouns of propositions. (16) 
From this it follows that all nouns employed as the subjects of pro- 
positions are to be classed under the third person ; they are only 
used to express parties merely spoken of. 

(1*7) There is another pronoun of the third pier son which we 
must notice here ; namely, the word one. This word seems to be 
the French on, borrowed, likely, from the Normans. It is used 
to represent an indefinite third person, and can scarcely be said to 
be the representative of a name, but rather of that which is nameless. 
One thinks=aiij person thinks. (See § 155 : 25.) 

Exercises on the Personal Pronouns. — I. Analyze the fol- 
lowing propositions : I think. We live. Thou standest. You run. 
He sleeps. She learns. It decays. They work. We prosper. He 
plays. I study. It snows. Man toils, he suffers, &c. 

Model of Analysis. — Example : " We live.''^ Point out the 
verb in this proposition. Ans. The word " live.''^ Why do you call 
" Zzve" a verb ? Ans. Because it is the assertive word of the propo- 
sition. What is the subject of this proposition ? Ans. The word 
"?^e." What do you mean by the subject of a proposition ? Ans. 
The subject is that of which the assertion contained in the proposi- 
tion is made. What kind of word is " ive''"' ? Ans. A noun of the 
second order, or a personal pronoun of the first person. What is 
meant by a pronoun or noun of the second order ? Ans. A word 



(13) What vfords are always used in propositions to represent the speaker and the party 
or parties addressed ? (14) Are nouns ever employed for this purpose? (15) What siCbject 
Thoims are employed in propositions having reference to parties distinct from speaker and 
hearer ? (16) Under what person then are all nouns employed as subjects of propositions 
to be classed? 

(17) Eepeat what is said of the indefinite pronoim one. 



§ 31.] PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 41 

which stands instead of a noun^ or which represents a noun, without 
being the definite or fixed name of any particular object or class of 
objects. What does the pronoun " t^e" here represent ? Ans. The 
names of the person who speaks (who utters the proposition), and 
of those for whom, in connection with himself, he speaks. 

These questions may be increased or diminished, according to 
the capacity and the progress of the learner. It will generally be 
best to analyze a few examples very fully, and afterwards abbrevi- 
ate the process, as in the model which follows : 

Model Second. — ^Example : "/SAe learnsr The verb is " learns,^'' 
for " learns " expresses the assertion contained in the proposition. 
The subject is the pronoun she. This pronoun is of the third per- 
son and feminine gender ; for it represents an individual merely spo- 
ken of, and that individual a female. Or, more briefly still, the sub- 
ject is i\iQ feminine pronoun she of the third person. 

Example : Man toils, he suffers, &c. The subject of the second 
proposition is he, the masculine pronoun of the third person. This 
pronoun represents the noun " man " — the subject of the preceding 
proposition. 

In written analyses, the following abbreviations may be adopted : 
pron. for pronoun, persl. for personal, pers. for person, the numerals 
1, 2, 3 to express the number of the person, mas. for masculine, /em. 
for feminine, neut. for neuter. It may be useful, in writing, to draw 
a line under all the grammatical terms and abbreviations employed 
to indicate the analysis, in order to distinguish them more clearly 
from the words of the example analyzed. In the jDrinted book we 
exhibit the words employed to express the analysis in Italics, to dis- 
tinguish them from the words analyzed, which are exhibited in 
Roman type. 

Model of a Written Exercise. — Example : He sleeps (He, 
mas. pron. 3 pers.) s. sleeps, v. That is, He, the masculine pronoun 
of the third person, is the subject, sleeps is the verb. 

Exercises H. HI., &c. — Let the pupil form a given number of 
written propositions \idiYmg personal pronouns for their subjects. 

§ 31. Proper Nouns and Common ISTouns. — We must now 
attend to another classification of nouns, founded on a different prin- 
ciple — a classification of considerable importance in a grammatical 



42 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§31' 

point of view, as many of the contrivances of language have refer- 
ence to the fact or principle on which it rests. The fact to which 
we allude is the extent of the signification of nouns. (1) In refer- 
ence to this, Grammarians have divided them into two classes, 
called by them proper nouns and common nouns. 

(2) Some nouns are names appropriated to certain persons or 
things, as the nam.es of men and women, names given to some of 
the domestic animals, as dogs, horses, &c., by which we recognise 
only a single indi\ddual. To this class belong also the names of 
countries, regions, cities, towns, mountains, rivers, states, nations, or 
races of men, languages, days, months, festivals, great events, ships, 
&c., &c. (3) These are caWed proper notcns, because they are names 
proper — that is, peculiar or appropriated to individual persons, 
places^ &c., of which they are the spoken signs. Proper has, in 
this use, the sense it retains in the word property. These names 
are, as it were, the property of the individuals they represent. Ex- 
amples : George Washington, Maria Edgewoi'th, Europe, the Cana- 
das, London, New- York, the Alps, the Potomac, Pennsylvania, the 
Germans, the Celts, French, English, Monday, May, Christmas, 
Easter, the Revolution, &c. 

(4) There are other names which are used to designate, not a 
single individual, but a whole class of objects : as, animal^ man^ tree. 
These are sometimes employed to designate the whole class taken 
together, sometimes to designate any individual or any number of 
individuals of the class. (5) Without the help of some other sign, 
they never indicate any determinate individual or determinate indi- 
viduals of the class. (6) They are sometimes called general terms, 
because some of them serve to indicate a whole genus or class. In 
grammar, they are generally and more properly called common 
NOUNS ; because they are names common to a whole class of ob- 
jects. 

The following description of the manner in which men may have 

§ 31. (1) Name the two classes into which nouns are divided in reference to the extent 
of their signification. 

(2) What nouns, or names are included in the first class, or class of proper ncnins ? 
(3) Why are they c&\ie^ proper nouns f Give examples. (4) Describe the other class of 
noions. (5) Do these nouns alone serve to indicate a determinate individual? (6) What 
are these nouns sometimes called, and for what reason? What are they usually called by 



§ 31.] PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 43 

been led to the invention of common names, will serve to elucidate the 
distinction between these classes of words. "We subjoin it for the pe- 
rusal of the learner. The account of the matter here given rests on 
the supposition that the first names invented would naturally be pro- 
per names. We know that this is disputed, perhaps justly ; we enter 
not into the controversy. But whether the supposition is correct or 
not, the statement given below will tend to explain the distinction be- 
tween proper and common names, to exhibit clearly the use and impor- 
tance of common names, and to fix the subject in the memory of the 
learner. 

Let us suppose that we are commencing the formation of a Ian- • 
guage. Our first efifort, so far as names of substances is concerned, 
would be to give names to the objects around us, by which names we 
might recall the conception of these objects (when absent) to our own 
minds, and to the minds of others. In commencing this task, we 
would likely attempt to give a separate name to every conspicuous and 
interesting object (a sign exclusively appropriated to it), which, when 
uttered, would, with unfailing certainty, recall its image to the mind. 
Thus we might call each individual of our own species by a distinctive 
name ; our favorite animals, as dogs, horses, &c., we might designate 
in the same way ; and every river, mountain, hill, valley, and conspic- 
uous or notable place might have an appellation appropriated to 
itself. 

But when we come to name the trees of the forest, or the grass of 
the fields, or the ears or kernels of grain, and the other products of 
the teeming earth, or the pebbles on the sea-shore, or the more dimin- 
utive swarms of living insects, we should find it utterly impossible to 
proceed as before, and to give a peculiar name to each individual tree, 
blade of grass, &c. These objects, though sometimes collectively con- 
sidered highly interesting to man, individually considered, are not of 
sufficient account in our view to require each a separate name. The 
attempt to give such names would frustrate the most valuable purposes 
of language by introducing an innumerable host of signs of individual 
objects — singly considered, of little or no importance to us — which 
the longest life would not be suflScient to master, and the strongest 
memory could not retain. Were it possible to give names to every 
single plant in a piece of fertile land of a few acres' extent, these 
names would be more numerous than the words contained in the most 
copious language of civilized man. 

We should, therefore, soon find ourselves obliged to proceed — as 
mankind in the formation of languages have in fact proceeded — to give 



44 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 31. 

names to classes of these objects, and relinquisL. the absurd attempt 
to give a separate name to each individual object. Thus, all plants 
agreeing in certain characteristics we would call by the general name 
tree. Another class grain ; another grass, &c. These again we might 
divide into other inferior classes, possessing certain characteristics or 
marks distinguishing them from the rest of the greater class. Thus, 
trees might be divided into sub-classes, with distinctive names, as 
ash, beach, oak, pine, &c., each class so named being distinguished 
from all other trees by obvious characteristics. By this device, we 
avoid the endless labor of inventing a new name for every distinct ob- 
ject, as well as the confusion arising from a language so crowded with 
words as to be wholly unmanageable, or, at least, unsuitable to the 
purpose of readily communicating our thoughts. 

Even where every individual of a class has a proper name, as is the 
case in regard of our own kind, still a common or general name (a class 
name) in addition becomes indispensable whenever we wish to make 
an assertion embracing the whole kind or class. It would be not 
merely inconvenient, but impossible, to enumerate by their proper 
names all the individuals of the class, in order to make an assertion 
embracing them together. Such an assertion as, " Man is mortal," or, 
"Men are mortal," could never be made, were we obliged to express 
the fTO]ier names of all the parties included under the assertion. So 
that, even if we had a. proj^er name for every object, we could not 
dispense with the use of common names. 

[(7) This division of nouns into iwojyer nouns and common 
7iouns has reference chiefly, if not exclusively, to concrete nouns, 
or names of substances, including collective nouns. (8) All 
l^roioer nouns are names of substances, and the name common 
nouns apphes chiefly and most appropriately to signs of classes of 
substances. (9) The collectives are chiefly common nouns, names 
common to Mnds of collections of individuals, as party, assembly, &c., 
each of these representing a class of those collections, or unions into 
which individuals are sometimes formed. (10) Sometimes collec- 
tives are employed as proper names ; as, when we use the word 
Parliament, to mean the Parliament of Great Britain ; or Congress, 

grammarians? [(7) To what kinds of nouns does this division into proper and common 
extend? (S) To which of the classes of nouns ah-eady enumerated do proper nouns exclu- 
sively belong? and to what nouns does the name camrnon nxost appropriately apply ? (9) 
What class are chiefly common nouns ? (10) Are any of the coUeciives to be considered as 
proper nouns ? (11) Give examples of plural proper nouns. 



§ 31.] PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. • 45 

to indicate the Legislature of the United States ; Parliament met 
for business — Congress adjourned. (11) Such expressions as the 
Romans, the Stuarts, the Bourbons, the Caesars, &c., may be con- 
sidered as a kind of collective or plural proper noune. 

(12) The grammarians generally designate all nouns which are 
not proper nouns (that is, names appropriated to individual persons 
or things, or determinate collections of persons or things), as com- 
mon nouns. (13) It would perhaps be better to restrict this classi- 
fication to the names of substances. (14) Many, indeed, of the 
abstract nouns may, in some sense, and as sometimes employed, be 
considered, like common nouns, the names of classes. (15) For exam- 
ple, whiteness may, in some sort, be considered as the name of a class 
of attributes, for there is one ivhiteness of snow, another whiteness of 
milk, another whiteness of paper, &c. Virtue, too, is the name of a 
numerous class of moral qualities, and vice in like manner. (16) Yet 
even these words are not, in their general usage in language, contem- 
plated as names of classes of qualities or attributes, but as names of 
single attributes, or qualities, found, indeed, in various and large classes 
of objects, and in various degrees of intensity, but, in the mind's 
conception of them, possessed of a sort of individuality. When in- 
tended to be employed as names of classes, some variation of expres- 
sion is generally necessary to announce this fact. (17) Some of 
these nouns are expressive of qualities which admit of no variation, 
as mortality/, perpetuity, equality, &c. The conceptions of which 
these are the signs have all the individuality of those represented 
hj proper nouns. (18) Upon the whole, as the manner in which 
all abstract and verbal nouns and the pronouns are employed in 
language, is more like that in which proper nouns are used, than 
that in which common nouns are used, we think it best not to class 
them with common nouns, but to restrict the division of nouns into 
proper and common to names of substances^ 



(12) How do grammarians generally designate all nouns that are not proper nouns ? (13) 
What restriction of this classification is suggested? (14) May abstract nouns ever be con- 
sidered as common nouns ? (15) Illustrate this point. (16) Are abstract nouns in their 
general usage contemplated as names of classes of attributes ? (17) What is said of the 
qualities or atti-ibutes expressed by some abstract nouns ? (18) To what kind of nouns does 
it seem best to restrict the division into proper and common ?] 



46 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§31' 

(19) Let the learner remember that, in writing proper names 
and words derived from them, we always begin the woi'd with a 
large letter, or, as it is commonly called, a capital letter . (20) Thus, 
England is spelled with a large £", and English, though not a noun, 
because it is derived from, and has reference to, a proper name, is 
spelled with a capital E. The same may be said of America and 
American. (21) In the beginning of the last century it was cus- 
tomary, in our printed books, to distinguish every noun, whether 
proper or common, by a capital letter. This custom is still retained 
by the Germans. In their language every noun, and every word 
employed as a noun, is distinguished by a capital. 

Let the learner tell to which class proper nouns or common nouns, 
each word in the following exercise, belongs, giving, in each case, 
the reason for so classing it. In this exercise we have not em- 
ployed capitals in spelling the proper nouns, lest we should distin- 
guish them from the common nouns. After repeating the exercise, 
as an oral lesson, the learner may be required to write it, distinguish- 
ing the proper nouns by an initial large letter. 

Exercise. — Plant, town, country, India, frankhn, man, england, 
president, america, king, soldier, hero, st. pauFs, trinity church, 
general, mountain, the rocky mountains, Philadelphia, liverpool, 
country, kingdom, state, bristol, stranger, horse, day, thui'sday, 
april, Stephen, boston, city, &c. 

Model of Examination. — What kind of word is plant ? Ans. 
A noun, or substantive. Why do you call it a noun ? Ans. Because 
it belongs to that class of words which serve as subjects of proposi- 
tions. What kind of noun ? Ans. A concrete common noun. 
Why call it a concrete noun ? Ans. Because it is the name of a 
substance, or of that which possesses independent existence. Why 
a common noun ? Ans. Because it is a name common to a class of 
things, and not appropriated to a single individual thing. 

The young learner may now be required to give twenty (or more, 
according to circumstances'! examples of concrete nouns as a written 
exercise, distinguishing each proper noun in the usual manner, by 
beginning it with a large letter. After this exercise has been ex- 

(19) How are proper nouns and nouns derived from proper names written? (20) Illus- 
trate this by examples. (21) What was the practice in former times la writing nouns ? 



§ 32.] OF THE USE OF COMMON NOUNS. 47 

amined, let the pupil be questioned according to the above model, 
on each example. These exercises must be repeated till the learner 
can promptly distinguish proper and common nouns from one ano- 
ther, and from all other classes of words. 

§ 32. (1) In employing common nouns — that is, words which 
designate classes of things — we may have occasion either to speak, 
1st, of the whole class ; 2d, of an individual of the class ; or, 3d, of 
a number of individuals of the class without comprising the whole 
class. (2) The noun, in its simplest form, without any modification 
of any kind, is sometimes employed in English to indicate the whole 
class of objects to which the name is applicable. (3) Thus, the word 
man is employed to signify the whole race of men, or all mankind, 
as when we say Man is frail, Man is mortal, The proper study of 
mankind is man. By man, in all these cases, we mean the whole 
human race, or humanity in general. (4) AVhen we wish to indicate, 
by a common noun, a single individual, we must, in our language, 
have recourse to the use of one of a class of words which we shall call 
DETERMINATIVES ; as, a man, one man, any man, some man, &c. 
(5) The term man cannot with propriety be used alone in our lan- 
guage to indicate a single individual man. And the same holds of 
other common nouns. 

(6) When we wish to indicate more than one individual of a 
class or species, without indicating the whole species, we must use 
what is called the plural form of the noun, and a determinative or 
descriptive word besides, to restrict or limit the noun. (7) As ex- 
amples we may take the phrases, some men, many men, good men, 
wise men, &c. Here we use men, the plural form of man, and add 
the limiting words, some, many, good, wise. (8) The plural form of 
the word man, as well as the singular form, is used without any 
modifying word to express the whole race ; as. Men are frail, Men 
are mortal, &c. [(9) Indeed it is generally the plural form of com- 

§ 32. (1) Mention the purposes for which we may have occasion to employ common 
nouns. (2) For what purpose is the common noun in its simplest form sometimes employed 
in English ? (3) Give illustrations of this fact. (4) To what contrivance must we have re- 
course in English in order to indicate a single individual by a common noun ? (5) What is 
said of the term man ? 

(6) How do we indicate more than one of a class without indicating the whole class ? 
(T) Give examples. (8) For what purpose is the plural form without any modifying 
word employed ? [(9) What form of a common noun is generally employed to express the 



48 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 33. 

mon nouns which is employed to express the whole class collectively. 
(10) It is only in the case of certain words that we can with pro- 
priety employ the singular form to express the whole class ; and 
when we do use it, it does not so much indicate the class, or indi- 
viduals taken collectively which form the class or species, as the 
combined qualities or attributes which constitute or distinguish the 
class. (11) Thus, man means, when used alone or unmodified, the 
combined qualities, properties, distinguishing attributes which con- 
stitute man, or nearly the same which is sometimes indicated by 
the term humanity ; as in the example already given, The proper 
study of mankind is man — that is, the properties, attributes, &c,, 
which belong to or constitute man. (12) We cannot use such 
words as tree or animal to express the whole class of trees or ani- 
mals ; nor such words as oah or ash. These last, when used with- 
out a determinative, signify a very different thing from the species 
which they indicate collectively considered. Thus used, they serve 
to indicate the kind of wood which they afford, considered as a ma- 
terial for human uses, not the collective species of trees.] 

§ 33. We are now brought to consider an important modifica- 
tion of the subject noun, effected (at least partly) by a change of the 
form of the word. (1) We use the unaltered form of the noun 
(accompanied generally, in the case of names of substances, by a 
determinative word) to indicate a single individual of the class to 
which the noun serves as a common name, and we employ a modi- 
fied form, when we intend to indicate more than one individual of 
the class. (2) These two forms may be called the singular form 
and the plural form — the singular indicating a single thing, the - 
plural a plurality of things, or more than one. [(3) For the sake of 
brevity, we may henceforth call the original, unmodified, uninflected 
form of nouns and verbs the root of the noun or verb.] (4) The gram- 



whole class collectively ? (10) What is said of the employment of the singular form to ex- 
press a whole class ? (11) Illustrate by an example. (12) Can such words as tree, or ani- 
mal, &c., be used to express the class of trees, &c. ; and what do such words as oaJc and ash 
used alone signify ?] 

§ 83. (1) What form of the noun is used when we speak of a single object of a class, and 
what when we speak of more than one ? (2) What may these forms be called ? [(3) What 
is meant by the root of a wo?wi- or verb f] (4) What have gi'ammarians called this modifi- 
cation of nouns? 



§ 33.} SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS OF NOUNS. 49 

marians generally call this modification of nouns number, and say 
that nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

As this manner of expression has been so long employed, we shall 
feel obliged (through a regard to convenience, and to avoid the ap- 
pearance of making unnecessary innovations), to adopt it on some oc- 
casions, though it is liable to serious objection, because it implies that 
unity is a number, v^^hereas number consists of the aggregation or sum 
of two or more units. The difficulties which have occurred to some 
of the grammarians, and the less scientific writers on arithmetic, in 
attempting to define number, and the glaring absurdities which have 
been sometimes produced as definitions, are all to be traced to the im- 
proper extension (an extension unwarranted by the common usage of 
language, and reprobated by philosophers as early as the times of 
Aristotle) of the word number, so as to embrace under it the concep- 
tion of unity as well as of plurality. It is not to be expected that any 
serviceable definition can be given embracing in the same terms con- 
ceptions so diverse — so opposed as unity and plurality. In other 
words, while a unit is considered one of the num'bers, there can be no 
rational or logical definition of number. We may, indeed, have such 
jargon as "number is the consideration of an object as one or more;" 
or, " number is that property of a noun, by which it expresses one, or 
more than one," &c. "When number is considered as made up of the 
aggregation or sum of units, the proper definition obviously presents 
itself. But then to talk of the singular member is absurd — a contra- 
diction of terms. This use of the term number by most grammarians, 
and by a host of writers on arithmetic, is also altogether inconsistent 
with the current usage of language in speaking of every thing except 
grammar and arithmetic. When we use the word number in common 
discourse we always intend to iiidicate a plurality, and to exclude 
unity (except in such colloquial expressions as ''''number one^^). A 
number of men, a mmiber of things, always implies plurality, and is 
equivalent to several men, several things. 

When we have occasion hereafter to speak of the singular form of 
nouns, we shaU call it simply the singular form, and not the singular 
number ; but as there is no other name in our language to express 
that modification or accident of nouns which we are considering, we 
are obliged to employ the term number, or numbers of nouns, for this 
purpose, whilst we admit its want of strict appropriateness, except 
as applied exclusively to the plural form. At the same time, we shaU 
endeavor to guard our readers and ourselves against any misconcep- 
tion to which the use of this term might possibly lead. 



50 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 34. 

§ 34. In coming to treat of the formation of the plural of 
nouns, a class of the contrivances of articulate language distinct 
from what we have yet had under consideration, and a class which 
will employ much of our attention in the remainder of this trea- 
tise, is presented to our notice. (1) Hitherto we have contem- 
plated nouns and verbs as performing their respective functions in 
propositions without any species of modification, whether effected 
by a change of their form, or by the assistance of other words. 
(2) Veiy few of the purposes which language now serves can be 
accomplished without advancing a step beyond this. With un- 
modified nouns, and unmodified verbs, we could form but a 
very small number of propositions, and express a very hmited 
portion of our thoughts. (3) The learner will, no doubt, have 
discovered this fact already in attempting to form rational pro- 
positions consisting of two words — a simple unmodified noun, 
and an unmodified verb. (4) For example, of the subject express- 
ed by the noun man without any modification, we can by the use 
of bare verbs make only a very limited number of assertions con- 
sistent with truth, and deserving the attention of rational beings. 
Man lives, man thinks, man speaks, talks, sings, walks, runs, &c., 
&c. Such propositions, though all true, contain truths so well 
known by mankind generally, that we seldom find occasion to em- 
ploy them in this naked form in conversation or in writing, and 
even when we do, in order to give our assertion more appearance 
of weight, we usually employ some more dignified mode of ex- 
pression, as man is endowed with thought, with speech, (fcc. 

(5) Even, if we are allowed to modify at pleasure the verbs we 
employ, we can make only a limited number of true and rational 
assertions about the subject expressed by the naked term man. 
(6) But, when we are allowed to modify this term by the assistance 
of additional words, and, at the same time, to modify the verb, we 



§ 34 (1) What is said of the manner in which we have been contemplating nouns and 
verbs hitherto ? (2) Can the purposes of language be effected by unmodified nouns and 
verbs ? (3) What will the learner have already discovered in regard to this matter ? (4) 
Give example, and go through the illustration. 

(5) When allowed to modify the verbs we employ, can we make a large number of asser- 
tions in regard to the subject expressed by the bare word man ? (6) How is it, when we are 
allowed to modify the subject noun and the verb ? (T) lUusti-ate by examples. 



§ 34.] MODIFICATIONS OF THE FORM OF WORDS. 51 

can readily increase our stock of propositions. [1) For example, 
we cannot say with truth, man is happy, for many men are far from 
being happy. We cannot say, man is esteemed, man is loved, man 
is admired, man is envied, &c., because these predicates do not ap- 
ply to every man indiscriminately. But we can say without offend- 
ing against truth or propriety, a virtuous man is happy, an upright 
man is esteemed, a good man is loved, a great man is admired, a rich man 
is envied, &c. (8) In these propositions, it will be observed, the assertions 
are not made of man generally — of man considered as possessing only 
the necessary and essential characteristics of the human family — 
of any, or every man ; but of a man — some individual man pos- 
sessing a superadded quality, which does not necessarily, or in 
reality, belong to all men. The real subject of the foregoing pro- 
positions is not the bare word man, but the modified or completed 
subjects, a virtuous man, a good man, &c. (9) The modifying 
words virtuous, good, &c., together with the Httle determinative 
sign a, are added to the noun (which forms, as it were, the basis 
or nucleus of the subject), and these together constitute the com- 
plete subject. 

(10) Various contrivances are employed to complete the sub- 
jects of propositions ; that is, to express with its proper limitations, 
qualifications, &c., the exact subject of which we make an assertion. 
In like manner, there are also various contrivances for expressing the 
proper limitations, qualifications, &c., of the predicates of propositions. 

(11) All these contrivances, for want of a better name, we may, 
for the present, call modifications oi nouns and verbs. (12) They 
may be divided into two general classes : 1st, modifications effected 
on the form of the noun or verb ; and 2d, modifications effected 
by the assistance of other words. (13) The first class we shall call 
simply modifications. When we come to treat of the latter class, 
we shall call them, after the French manner, complements (that is, 



(8) Of what are the assertions in the examples made— of man expressive of the human 
race, or of what ? (9) What constitutes the/ real subjects of these propositions ? 

(10) What is said of the contrivances employed to complete propositions? 

(11) What name may be given to these contrivances ? (12) Describe the two general 
classes of these modifications. (13) How shall we designate the first, and how the second 
class ? 



52 STEUCTiTii: or laxgua&e. [^ 35. 

comjpletemerds) of tlie suhject and predicate respectiYelT, or some- 
times modifications of the subject-noun and verb respectively. 

Eemark- — (14) The yoimg learner will please remember that 
the vroid complement means that which filh up^ or compIeteSj 
and that it is not to be coniomided with the more common word 
compliment, which is wholly unlike it in meaning, though similar in 
sound. 

§35. (1) Our attention for the present is to be exclusively di- 
rected to the first class of modifxations — those which are indicated 
by some change effected on the form of the noun or verb ; and first, 
to the change of the form of the noun employed as suhject- 
noun to ^press plurality. (2) It may here be remarked that these 
modifications of the forms of both nouns and verbs — especially of 
the verbs — are of two distinct kinds ; first, those which consist, of 
a change of what is called the root, or radical part of the word 
without any thing being added to the word ; for example, raan is 
changed inw men to form the plural. Here the sound of the root 
is changed or modified, but nothing is added. The second kind of 
modification is efiectei by adding a soimd to the root ; as, for ex- 
ample, the plural of the word hooJc is formed by adding the sound 
of s ; singular hooh, plural books, the first used to exj-ress a single 
book the latter a number of books, 

(3) There are now only a few nouiis in our language that form 
their plurals by a mollification of the sound of the root, or by what 
we shall call for the sake of distinction a radical modification.^ 



* We hiiTe got no appropriate distinctiTe name in our langtiage for 
fhese two kinds of modincation. Indeed tte fact on which this distinc- 
tion rests, has been noticed by few of onr grammarians. They have rid 
themselves of all tronble with noxms and verbs which undei^o the radical 
modification, by setting them adde as irregul<Lr. This is a ver\- convenient 
way of disposing of thee word% but it is neither feir, nor philosophical to 
treat in this manner what is apparently the most ancient species of modifica- 
tion in onp own language, in its mother the Anglo-Saxon, and in all the sis- 

(14) What is the meairmg c: tie ~:~t : :~j"e~ f- : a- i from what word must it be dis- 
tingnished? 

I 35. a) T: -- .. ;: - :: : : . :. ;- :.: - :.: . -; .: 5^:- 

dniMonmavle ::: .\r :: :_:r:i:5: ^e::^: .; jiii ;: - : :':i ; : . . : ; ; - : :riii:s:e 

dass. 

(3) What distinorlTe nimes siv c.e given to these modiSesiSons ? 



§ 36.] ON THE SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 53 

We shall add a list of tliese after we have treated of the forma- 
tion of the plural by the more usual process, namely, by an addi- 
tion made to the root or radical form of the word. This for dis- 
tinction's sake we may call the fiexional modification. 

(4) Before we proceed to treat farther of these modifications of 
the forms of words, and in particular of the formation of the plu- 
rals of nouns, it will be necessary to give some account of the ele- 
mentary sounds which constitute words, and of the written signs 
employed to represent these words to the eye. (5) Without some 
knowledge of these matters the learner will not be prepared to fol- 
low us readily in treating of the variations of form which words 
undergo in order to accomplish the purposes of language. In fact, 
we find that without presupposing such knowledge on his part, we 
cannot treat these modifications in a clear or satisfactory manner. 
We cannot refer to the difterent classes of sounds and of letters, 
without first briefly considering these classes, and putting the pupil 
in possession of their names. 

Eemaek. — It is usual to introduce something on the sounds of the 
language in the beginning of grammars. We think it better not to 
introduce this discussion till such time as it is needed^ and must be 
applied in treating of the contrivances of speech. Though its intro- 
duction here must for a short time suspend our remarks on the modi- 
fication of nouns, the course we pursue saves the pupil the trouble 
of learning, first a number of dry facts apparently unconnected with 
the subject of the construction of language, and being again compelled 
to learn them a second time, when they come to be of practical use. 

REMARKS ON THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
AND ON THE SIGNS USED TO REPRESENT THESE SOUNDS."^ 

§ 36. (1) Words consist either of a single sound uttered by a 



ter dialects. Our cousins, tbe Germans, who have gone far ahead of us in 
grammatical and philological research, have given these two species 'of modi- 
fication distinctive names. 

* In pursuing our inquiries on this subject, we must never lose sight 

(4) To -what subject is it necessary to call the attention of the learner before we treat far- 
ther of the modification of the forms of words? (5) State the reasons for introducing this 
subject, and suspending our remarlis on the formation of the plural, &c. 

§ 36. (1) How are words constituted ? 



64 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 37. 

single effort of the organs of speech, or of a combination of two or 
more such soimds. (2) Every single sound thus uttered is called a 
syllable. (3) The term syllable means so much of a word as is 
taken together ; that is, so many letters in written language, as are 
taken together^ to form one single sound, or voice — the name by 
which some have chosen to call human utterances to distinguish 
them from ordinary sounds.* 

(4) A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word of 
two syllables a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables a trisyllable ; 
and a word of four or more syllables a 'polysyllable. 

(5) The sounds employed in articulate language to form sylla- 
bles are produced by the breath passing through the throat and 
mouth, and acted upon, in some cases, during its passage by the 
several organs of speech — especially the tongue, teeth and lips. 
[See Latham's Eng. Gram. p. lY.] 

(6) These sounds are constituted of two kinds of elements, 
vocal, or vowel sounds, and consonantal modifications of sound. 
(7) The letters which represent these vocal sounds and consonantal 
modifications of sound, are called voivels and consonants. 

§ 37. (1) Vowels. — The vocal or vowel sounds are formed by 
the passage of the breath through the mouth kept in a particular 
position, without any interference of the tongue, lips, or teeth. (2) 
These sounds admit of being continued so long as we choose to 



of the distinction between a sound and a letter. A letter is the sign or 
representative of a sound — often only of a part of a complete sound or utter- 
ance. Obvious as this distinction may seem, it has been sometimes over- 
looked in treating this part of grammar, and both confusion of thought and 
confusion of language, as might have been expected, have been the result. 

* This employment of the term voice, is not sanctioned by the com- 
mon usage of our language; though in Latin vox, from which voice is 
derived, is frequently employed to denote a sound emitted by the human 
voice. 



(2) What is the name given to a single sound? (3) Explain the meaning of the term 
sj/UaNe. 

(4) What name is given to a word of one syllable ? To a -word of two syllables ? &e. 

(5) How are the sounds employed in artic^date language formed? (6) What two kinds 
of elements constitute these sounds? (7) What are the letters which represent these dis- 
tinct elements of articulate sounds called ? ■ 

§ 37. (1) Describe the manner in wliich vowel sounds are formed ? (2) What is said of 



§ si.] VOWELS. 55 

keep tlie mouth in the same position, and pass the breath through 
it. (3) They can be uttered alone, being complete sounds, and 
hence may constitute a syllable or a word. 

(4) The vowel sounds are represented in the written English 
language by the letters, a, e, ^, o, u ; which are hence called vow- 
els. (5) The letter y also repi-esents a vowel sound — the same 
sound as i or e — when found in the middle or end of a syllable. 
(6) W, also, in the middle or in the end of a syllable is generally 
considered a vowel. Sometimes it represents the sound of u, as in 
now, cow, voiv, &c. 

[CZ) In many cases it is, as the language is now pronounced, 
a mere quiescent or otiose (idle) letter in the written language, hav- 
ing no corresponding sound in the spoken language. This hap 
pens when it follows the vowel o ; as, in low, blow, flow, follow, &c. 
Sometimes it indicates the particular sound which the preceding 
vowel represents. This happens when it follows a ; as in law, bawl, 
raw, &c. And sometimes it combines with the vowel e ; in which 
case it is sounded nearly like u. In our language it can never 
stand alone in a syllable. It must be supported by another vowel. 
In this it differs from y, as well as from all the other vowels.] 

(8) W and y are commonly reckoned consonants when they 
begin a syllable. [(9) Semivowels — the name given to them, when 
they occupy this position, by some modern grammarians — ^is a much 
more appropriate appellation, if the older grammarians had not 
already applied it to another class of sounds, or rather — as we have 
ventured to consider and treat them — modifiers of sounds. 

(10) The vowel sounds in the English language are much more 
numerous than the letters which are used to represent them. (11) 
The letter a represents three or four distinct sounds, as may be seen 
in the words late, man, far, ball. E represents the two distinct 
sounds found in the words, me and met ; i the two found in the 

our power of continuing these vowel sounds ? (3) Can these be uttered alone ? What fol- 
lows as a consequence ? 

(4) By what letters are the vowel sounds represented ? (5) What is said of yf (6) What 
of^of 

[(T) What further is said of w f] 

(8) When are w and y reckoned consonants ? [(9) What other name has been applied 
to them by some grammarians, and what is said of this other name ? 

(10) Have we a distinct letter to represent each distinct vowel sound in our language ? 
ill) How many distinct sounds does the letter a represent? How many the letter e ? &c. 



56 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 38. 

words pin and^:)me; o the three found in no, not, move, &c. (12) 
It is reckoned that there are from ten to twelve distinct simple vocal 
sounds used in the English language. (13) From these we must 
exclude the sound represented by i in ^;me, as being a compound, 
and not a simple sound. (14) Some others, which we have men- 
tioned above, may be considered as distinguished only by a more 
or less protracted pronunciation.] 

§ 38. (1) Two vowel sounds are sometimes pronounced in com- 
bination by a single impulse of the voice, or in one syllable. Such 
combinations are called diphthongs, that is, double sounds. (2) Ex- 
amples are found in the words voice and ounce, in which two sounds 
represented by different letters are united in the same syllable. [(3) 
We have also an example in pine. Here two sounds — the sound 
of a in man and of i in pm, or, as some think, of the semivowel y in 
i/et — are distinguishable, though the combined sound is represented 
by the single character i. 

(4) On the other hand, two vowel characters, or letters, are 
often found united in the same syllable in the written language, 
w^hen the syllable, in our modern pronunciation, contains but one 
simple vowel sound. We have examples in the words head, field, 
great, lead, &c. (5) Those combinations which represent a double 
sound in the spoken language are commonly called by grammarians 
pt'oper diphthongs, and those which do not represent a double 
sound are called improper diphthongs — by some, more properly, 
digraphs. (6) This distinction, it will be noticed, has reference only 
to the written language. (Y) There are no improper diphthongs in 
the spoken language.^ (8) Sometimes in written language we find 

* As the term diphthong, in its propei' sense, can apply only to spoken 
language, the expressions proper and improper diphthongs, meaning diph- 

(12) How many distinct simple vowel somids are reckoned in English ? (13) What sound 
represented by a single letter must be excluded from the number of the simple vowel 
sounds ? (14) By what alone do some of the vowel sounds above enumerated seem to be 
distinguished from each other ?] 

§38. (1) What is said of the combination of vowel sounds, and what arc such coDibincb- 
Uons of simple sounds called ? What does the term diphthong mean ? (2) Furnish exam- 
ples. [(3) What is said of i in such words as pine ? 

(4) Do two vowel characters in the same syllable always represent a double sound in 
spoken language ? Give examples. (5) What is, & proper diphthong ? What an improper 
diphthong ? (6) What is said of this distinction ? (7) Are there any improper diphthongs 
in spoken language ? (8) Are three voicel eha>racter8 ever united in the same syllable in the 



§ 39.] CONSONANTS. 6*7 

three vowel characters combined in one syllable ; as in the words 
beauty^ beau, lieutenant, &c. These have been called triphthongs 
(9), perhaps improperly, as it is more than doubtful whether, in our 
spoken language, such a thing as the combination of three sounds 
in one syllable ever occurs. (10) The eau, for example, in beau, 
r«_ presents but a single vocal sound in the pronunciation of the word ; 
and eau in beauty, and ieu in lieutenant, represent certainly nothing 
more complex than a diphthongal sound.] 

§ 39. Consonants. — (1) The consonants are sounds, or, more 
properly, modifications of sounds, which cannot be pronounced alone, 
but only in connection with a vowel.^ (2) And hence the name 



thongs which are a combination or coalescence of two vowel sounds, and 
diphthongs which are not a combination of two vowel sounds (that is, which 
are not diphthongs at all), involve an absurdity. The grammarians have 
been led into this absurdity by the confusion of vowel sounds with the char- 
acters which represent them, both of which they have called by the same 
name — vowels. We much need a term to express a vowel character or letter 
distinct from the term used properly to express a vowel sound, and a term to 
express a written word distinctly from a spoken word. Improper diphthongs 
are more properly called digraphs — that is, sounds represented by two letters 
in the written language. 

* The vowel in a syllable may be considered as the basis of the sound, 
and the so called consonantal sounds as modifications applied to this sound 
{vox) as it passes through the mouth. Every entire syllable is a single 
sound or utterance, either simply vocal or modified. The consonantal modi- 
fications effected by the tongue, lips, teeth, <fec., produce that boundless co- 
piousness and variety of articulations which distinguish artificial language. 
With the vowels alone we could form only a dozen or so, distinct syllables, 
and even these ill adapted for the purpose of combination to form words. 
But, by the combination of vowel sounds with consonantal modifications, we 
can form a great variety of syllables ; and by the further combination of two 
or more of these syllables in words, we obtain the countless number of signs 
which are employed in the various dialects spoken by the races of mankind. 

Since writing the preceding part of this note, we have found a remark 
in an article on Comparative Philology in the North British Eeview for 
ISTovember, 1851, which we introduce here as confirmatory of our views. 

toritten language, and if so, what are suph combinations called? (9) Are there any triph- 
thongs, that is, combinations of three vowel soimds, in the spolcen language ? (10) What is 
said of such combinations of vowel letters as eau in 'becvu and in teauty, and ieu in lieuten- 
ant?} 

§ 39. (1) Vfhat is said of consonants ? (2) "What does the term consonant mean ? 



58 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 39. 

consonant— sounding-ivith. (3) Alone, they can, of course, never 
form a word or syllable. All tlie remaining letters of the alphabet, 
after we have subtracted the vowel characters above enumerated, 
are called consonants. (4) These have been divided by the gi-am- 
marians into two classes, mutes and semivowels. 
' Mutes and Semivowels.^ — (5) The distinction drawn between 
these is, that the mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of 
a vowel, whereas the semivowels have a sort of imperfect sound 
without the aid of a vowel. 

(6) The consonantal sounds, classed under the name of mutes, 
are represented in our alphabet by the letters 6, c hard, c?, g hard, 
k, p, q, and t. [(1) To these may be added the two distinct sounds 
represented by tli in the words thing and though, which are sim- 
ple sounds, or simple modifications of vocal sounds, though both — 
awkwardly and improperly — represented in our present written lan- 
guage by the two characters t and h. In the Anglo-Saxon alpha- 
bet these sounds had each an appropriate representative. (8) From 
the mutes above enumerated we may, as regards sounds, deduct 
two, since the letters c hard, k, and q, represent only a single sound, 
and c soft has the same sound as 5.] 

(9) The semivowels are represented by the letters /, /, m, n, r, s, 
V, and c and g soft. (10) We have omitted x and z in enumerating 
the mutes and semivowels, because each of them is the representa- 
tive of a combination of two consonantal sounds, a; of ^ combined 

" Alphabets are tlie result of analysis ; syllables are really the units of sound. 
The Chinese and, we believe, the Maudschur, have really only syllabaries, 
the former significant, and the latter phonetic as well." 

* This classification is of little practical use in our language, and is founded 
on, what seems to us, a rather doubtful distinction. Still, as it is old, and 
commonly adopted, it deserves some passing notice. 



(3) Can a syllable be formed of consonants alone ? (4) Tell the classes into which most 
grammarians have divided the consonants? 

(5) State the distinction between mutes and semivowels. 

(6) Enumerate the mute consonants. [(7) What is said of the sounds represented by 
th ? (8) What is said of the sounds of c, ^, and g .?] 

(9) Enumerate the semvcouels. (10) What reason is assigned for omitting the somids 
represented by x and z f (11) What other letter has been excluded from the enumeration ? 
[(12) What is said of the proprMy of excluding h f^ (18) What is said of the liquids f 



§ 40.] CONSONANTS. 59 

with s, and z, as commonly supposed, of d with s.* (11) JThas 
also been excluded from this enumeration, because it is said to 
represent only an aspiration or breathing. [(12) This is, perhaps, 
unjust treatment of our strong aspirated English A, since it seems 
to serve the same purpose with all the other consonantal sounds — 
the purpose, namely, of so modifying the utterance of a vowel as 
to form a distinct syllable. The sound represented by hat, for ex- 
ample, when well pronounced, is nearly as distinct from at as the 
sounds cat, or fat, or mat, and serves as well the purpose of a dis- 
tinct sign in articulate language.] (13) Four of the semivowels are 
distinguished by the name of liquids, from their smoothness, and 
their consequent easy union in the same syllable with other conso- 
nants. The liquids are I, tn, n, and r. 

§ 40. [(1) Another, and more practically useful, classification of 
the consonantal sounds, is into sharjp and flat, or hard and soft. 
(2) This classification claims our notice, because the fact on which 
it is founded exercises an important influence on the inflexion of 
many words in the English language — I mean the spoken language. 
It accounts, also, for some of the irregularities of our pronunciation 
of the written letters ; or, in other words, for some of the numerous 
inconsistencies between our orthography and our pronunciation. 
We are indebted to Dr. Latham for what follows : 

(3) When two or more mutes of difl"erent degrees of sharp- 
ness or flatness come together in the same syllable, they form a com- 
bination of sounds that is incapable of being pronounced. (4) This 
may be understood by practising a few combinations according to 
the following table. The sharp mutes are arranged on the left, tho 
flat ones on the right side of the line. 



(5) Sharp or hard. 

p . . f 

t . . th {in thin) 

k . . 

s . . sh. 



(6) Flat or soft, 
b . . V. 
d . . th {in thine.) 

g ' ' 

z . . z (as in azure.) 



* Whether J is a component of the sound of z, as now pronounced in the 
English language, may well be doubted. 

§ 40. [(1) What other classification of the consonantal sounds is mentioned ? (2) State 
the claims which this classification has on our notice. 

(3) What happens when mutes of difi'erent degrees of sharpness or flatness come to- 
gether? (4) What mode of illustration is adopted and recommended ? (5) Name the sharp 



60 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 40. 

C?) Kow, taking whatever letter we may from the one side of 
the line, and joining it in the same syllable, with any letter what- 
ever from the other side of the line, we find the combination unpro- 
nounceable. For example, avt, ag% ags, ads, apd, &c., &c. (8) Of 
course, combinations of this sort can be written, and they can be 
spelt (indeed, in the English, as written combinations, they occur 
very frequently ; for example, stags, lads, &c., &c). They cannot, 
however, be pronounced, each sound remaining unchanged. 

(9) In order to become pronounced, a change must occur : one 
of the sounds changes its character, and so accommodates itself to 
the other (10) This change takes place in one of two ways ; either 
the first of the two sounds takes the degree of sharpness or flatness 
of the second, or the second the degree of sharpness or flatness of the 
first : for instance, abt becomes pronounceable either by b becoming 
p or by t passing into d ; in other words, it changes either to apt or 
to ahd. And so with the rest. 

(11) avt becomes either aft or avd. 

agt " " aJct or agd. 

ags " " aks or agz. 

apd " " apt or ahd, &c., &c. 

(12) This change is necessary and universal. It holds good, 
not for the English alone, but for all languages. (13) The only dif- 
ference is, that different languages change different letters ; that is, 
one accommodates the fii'st letter to the second, and so turns agt 
into aht ; the other (another) accommodates the second letter to 
the first, changing agt into a^c?.] — Lathani's Elem. Eng. Gram.^ 
pp. 19-21. 

We add in this place some further extracts from Dr. Latham, 
for the satisfaction of^our readers, and in order to do full justice to 
the author: — 



or Lard consonantal sounds. (6) Name the soft sounds on the right side of the line. (7) 
What is said of combinations formed of sounds from different sides of the lino — that is, 
combinations of hard with soft sounds ? (8) Are combinations of this kind ever written ; 
and when written can they be pronounced ? 

(9) What change must take place in pronouncing words formed in writing by the com- 
bination of sharp and flat, or hard and soft sounds? (10) Describe the t^vo ways in which 
this change is effected. (11) Tell what o/ZJi, a^^, a^5, &c. become in pronunciation? (12) 
Is this change universal, or is it confined exclusively to the English language ? (13) What 
is the only difference between different languages in this respect ?] 



§ 41.] APPENDIX ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 61 

"In order to understand this difference" (the difference between the 
sharp and the flat sounds), " it is necessary to take some mute consonants 
(p, b, f, V, t, d, th, k, g, s, z, sh, zh), and to pronounce them as independently 
of any vowel as it is possible to do. We must try to give a sound to such 
single consonants as p', f, &g. In attempting this, we shall succeed in mak- 
ing an imperfect sound. 

"JSTow, if the mute consonant so taken and uttered be one of the follow- 
ing, p, f, t, th (as in thin), h. s, or sh, the sound will be that of a whisper. 
The sound of p', f (such as it is), is that of a man speaking under the natu- 
ral pitch of his voice, and at a whisper. 

"But if the mute consonant so taken and uttered be either b, v, d, th (as in 
thine), g, z, or zh, the sound will be that of a man speaking at the natural 
pitch of his voice, and with a certain degree of loudness and clearness. This 
difference in the nature of the mute is highly important to be familiar with. 
Those that are sounded like p' and/', <fec., are called the flat mutes. 

" When two or more mutes of different degrees of sharpness or flatness 
come together in the same syllable, they form a combination of sounds that 
is incapable of being pronounced." And so on in continuation follows the 
passage quoted, with some slight abridgment in our article on the sounds 
and letters. After which the author proceeds as follows : 

"There is no fact that requires to be more particularly known than this," 
(Namely, the fact which forms the subject of the latter part of the extract 
introduced under the article just referred to.) " There are at least three 
formations in the English language where its influence is most important. 
These are, a) the possessive forms in -8 ; b) the plurals in -s ; c) the preterites 
in -d and -t. 

" Neither are there many facts in language more disguised than this is 
disguised in English. The s in the word stags, is sharp ; the g in the word 
stags is flat. Notwithstanding this, the combination ags exists. It exists, 
however, in the spelling only. In speaking, the s is sounded as z, and the 
word stags is pronounced stagz. Again, in words like tossed, plucked, looked, 
the e is omitted in pronunciation. Hence the words become tossd, pluckd, 
lookd; that is, the flat d comes in contact with the sharp k and s. Now, the 
combination exists in the spelling only, since the preterite oi pluck, look, and 
toss, are, in speech, pronounced pluckt, lookt, tosst. 

"For the sake of fixing the attention of the reader on the point, I will 
indicate in this place the reason for the difference between the spelling and 
the pronunciation, which has just been alkided to. This is as follows : For 
the possessive case singular, for the nominative plural, and for the preterite 
tense of verbs, the forms in Anglo-Saxon were fuller than they are in the 
present English. The possessive edngular ended not in -s only, but in -es ; and 
the nominative plural in -as. Similarly the preterite of the verbs ended 
either in -od, or -ed, not in -d only. E. g. wordes=of a word [word's), Jiddes 
=of a Jiood {flood's), landes=of a land {or lands), thinges=of a thing {or 



62 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 42. 

thing's), endas==e7ids, and so on throughout the language. In this case the 
vowel sej^arated the two consonants, and kept them from coming together. 
As long as this vowel kept its place, the consonants remained unchanged, 
their different degrees of sharpness and flatness being a matter of indiffer- 
ence. TVTien the vowel, however, was dropped, the consonants came in 
contact This reduced a change on one side or the other to a matter of ne- 
cessity. 

" Isext to knowing that two mutes of different degrees of sharpness or 
flatness cannot come together in the same syllable, it is important to know 
that two identical letters cannot come together in the same syllable. 

"In illustration of this, we may take a word ending in p, f, or s, and try 
to add a second p, t, or s to the fii^t one ; e. g. tap, hat, mis. To add a sec- 
ond p to tap, a second t to hat, or a second s to mis, is impracticable. At 
the first glance this statement seems untrue. Nothing, apparently, is com- 
moner than words like tapp, hatt, miss. However, like the combinations 
indicated above, these are, in reahty, combinations in spelling only ; they 
have no existence in pronunciation. We have only to attempt to pronoimce 
hat 't, sap 'p, &G., &c., to prove this." — (Latham's El. Eng. Gram. pj). 18, 
19, 21, 22.) 

§ 42. FoRMATIOX OF THE PlURAL OF ExGLISH NoUXS. 

I. (1) The plural of English nouns is generally formed by adding 
either the sharp, hissing sound represented by the character s (the 
sound in so7i and kiss), or the soft sound (the sound of z), often 
represented in our language by the same character. (2) Examples. 
Hoof, roofs; book, books; cv/p, cups; boot, hoots ; smith, smiths. 
All these, and all words terminating in similar sounds (viz., in the 
sounds represented by/, A', J9, t, and th hard), add the sharp sound 
of s to the root to form the plural. (See the reason of this in § 
§ 40.) (3) All nouns terminating in the vowel soimds represented 
by a, e, i or i/, o, u ; and in the consonantal sounds represented by 6, 
d, g, I, m, n, r, v, and th soft, add the soft sound of s (the same as 
that represented in Enghsh by z), to the root to form the plural. 
(4) Examples. Bay, bays ; bee, bees; tie, ties ; bow, bows ; virtue, 
virtues ; cab, cabs ; lad, lads ; stag, stags ; hill, hills ; drum, drums ; 
stars ; wave, waves ; tithe, tithes. These plural 



§ 42. (1) How is the plural of English noims generally formed ? (2) What nouns take 
the sharp sound of s to form the plural? Give examples. (3) T7hat nouns take the soft 

sound like s ? (i) Give examples, and tell how they are pronounced. 



§ 42.] ' FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 63 

forms are pronounced as if spelled hayz^ beez, cahz, staffz, &c. These 
sounds are always represented by the letter s. 

II. (5) When the noun ends in an s sound — that is, in s, ss, x 
(which is equal to ks), sA, the soft sound of ch as in churchy se, or ce, 
the syllable es (sounded ez) is added to form the plural.'* 

(6) Examples. Kiss, kisses ; box, boxes ; brush, brushes ; church, 
churches ; phrase, phrases ; face, faces. We have scarcely any origi- 
nal English noun which in the singular form ends in a single s. We 
have from the Latin isthmus, fungus, rebus, omnibus, and a few 
others, which have the plurals isthmuses, omnibuses, &c. All 
these plurals are pronounced with the soft sound of s, Mssez, boxez, 
isthmusez, &c. 

III. (7) Nouns ending in fe form plurals by the change of this 
termination into ves, as wife, plural wives ; knife, knives ; pro- 
nounced wivez, knivez. Strife, plural strifes, is an exception, re- 
taining the hard sound of/, and the hissing sound of s, which serves 
to distinguish this plural from the verb strives ; also, fife, plural 
fifes. (8) Many nouns, also ending in a single /, form plurals by 
changing the f into v and adding es = ez ; as, loaf, loaves ; leaf, 
leaves ; half, halves; sheaf, sheaves ; &c.f (9) Words ending in 
ff form their plurals regularly by adding the sharp sound of s ; ex- 
cept staff, plural staves. 

* The reason of this is that we cannot utter the sound of s after another 
s without the interposition of a vowel sound. In regard of words ending 
in an s sound, we must, therefore, either be contented to employ the same 
form in expressing a single object and a plurality of objects — that is, fail in dis- 
tinguishing the plural from the singular noun — or interpose a vowel sound be- 
tween the two s sounds, and thus add a syllable to the word. The first of 
these alternatives has been followed in the French language in the case of 
words ending in 5 sounds, the second in the English. 

f The words in / and fe which form plurals in ves are said to be all of 
Anglo-Saxon origin, except heef plural beeves ; and writers on Anglo-Saxon 
grammar agree that /in the end of Anglo-Saxon words was pronounced with 
the softened sound of v. This fully accounts for the formation of these plu- 

(5) In what cases do we add the syliable es to form the plural, and how is the s in this 
(syllable pronounced ? (6) Give examples. 

(7) How do nouns ending vafe form plurals f Mention exceptions. (8) How do many 
nouns ending in /alone form their plurals f Examples. (9) How do nouns ending in^ 
form the plural ? Mention exceptions. 



64 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 42. 

IV. (10) Nonns ending in o preceded by a consonant generally 
add the termination es to form the plural ; as, he?'o, plural heroes ; 
car go ^ cargoes ; wo, ivoes ; echo, echoes ; &c. Exceptions : canto, 
grotto, junto, portico, quarto, tyro, solo, add only s. (11) When the 
is preceded by a vowel, s alone is added, as folio, plural folios ; &c. 

V. (12) Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change 
the y into ies in the plural, as city, plural cities ; lady, ladies.^ 

(1 3) There are some few plurals, of old English words, which 
aj"e not formed on the same general principle with the classes of 
nouns already enumerated : viz., by the addition of an s sound, but 
by a modification of the vowel sound of the root (see § 35 : 2). 
We subjoin a list of the principal nouns of this class, as some of 
them are familiar words, frequently employed in discourse, and we 
may find it necessary to introduce them in the construction of ex- 
amples. 



'lingular. 


Phiral. 


Singular. 


Plurcd. 


Man, 


Men. 


Foot, 


Feet. 


Woman, 


Women. 


Tooth, 


Teeth. 


Mouse, 


Mice. 


Goose, 


Geese. 


Louse, 


Lice. 







We may add the personal pronouns and their plural forms used 
as subjects. 

Plural. Singular. Plural. 



1st person, I, We. ( He, mas. ) rv\. n 

2d person, -|!^^^_ ^j. lou. i" [it^^dut. ) *»•'• 

rals in ves. The word dwarf thougli Anglo-Saxon, forms its plural by adding 
the sharp sound of s. — (See Latham's Eng. Gram, p, 61.) 

* In the beginning of the 17th centuiy, the singular foi*ms of these nouns 
ended in ie, for which y has since been substituted. In the early editions of 
the authorized English version of the Bible, city is spelled citie ; mercy, 
mercie ; &c. The present plurals of these nouns are the regularly constructed 
plurals of these ancient singular forms. ISTouns ending in y preceded bj a 
vowel add s soft to form the plural. 

(10) How do nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant form their plurals? Give ex- 
ceptions. (11) What happens when the o final is preceded by a vowel? 

(12) What is said of the formation of the plural of nouns ending in y preceded bv a con- 
sonant ? Give examples. 

(13) What is said of exceptions ? What is the plural form of man ? &c. 



§ 43.] FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 65 

Exercises on the Formation of the Plural. — Exercise I. Let 
the pupil furnisli a list of a certain number of nouns which form their 
plurals by adding the sharp sound of s, and give the reason — viz., be- 
cause they end in one of the sharp consonantal sounds, /, /<?, p, t, th 
hard. 

Exercise II. Give a similar list of nouns forming the plural by the 
addition of the soft sound of s = z ; and assign the reason — viz., be- 
cause they end in one of the vowel sounds, or in one of the flat con- 
sonantal sounds, &, d^ g^ I, w, ?^, r, v^ and th soft. 

Exercise III. A similar list of nouns ending in an s sound with their 
respective plurals. 

Exercise IV. IsTouns in/*, and/e, forming plurals in ves. 

Exercise Y. Nouns in o preceded by a consonantal sound, taking 
the addition es in the written plural. 

Exercise VI. N"ouns in y preceded by a consonantal sound, and 
taking ies in the plural. 

What we have said above will be sufficient for the student to learn 
on first passing through the book. "We subjoin some additional re- 
marks to be studied on a second perusal, together with a table of irreg- 
ular forms. The pupil will remember that plurals are almost univer- 
sally formed by adding either s or es^ soft or hard. The exceptions are 
not very numerous, though they give the grammarian considerable 
trouble, on account of their various forms. 

[§ 43. Additional Remarks on the Formation of Plurals. — (1) A 
few English nouns form their plurals by the addition of e?i to the 
root. This plural termination was more common in Anglo-Saxon 
than in English. It seems to have been in earlier use than the forma- 
tion in s ; which, however, superseded it (in living use) even in Anglo- 
Saxon long before the ISTorman invasion. (2) The only plurals of this 
form, in current use at the present day, are oxen^ plural of ox ; cMldren^ 
plural of child ; and 'brethren^ one of the plural forms of 'brother. 



Dr. Latham has justly observed (Eng, Language, p. 220, 2d edit.), that 
the irregularity (if it may be so called) of the formation of the plurals, both 
of nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, and of nouns ending in y, is 
.a matter of orthography rather than of etymology — of spelling rather than 
of grammar. In the spohen language, all these plurals are regularly foi-med 
by the addition of the soft sound of s to the noun. For more on the subject 
of the formation of the plural, exceptions, (fee, see Additional Remarks, § 43. 



[§ 43. (1) "What is said of the formation of plurals in en ? (2) Name tlie plurals of this 
form in current use. 
5 



66 STRUCTURE OP LANGUAGE. [§43. 

(3) Ohildren seems to exhibit a combination of two ancient plm-al 
forms. Or, rather the en^ in the case of this word, has been added to 
a form already in use as a plural. Cliilder^ as the plural of cMld^ is 
still in common use among the uneducated classes, in many parts of 
the British empire. The present plural seems to have been formed by 
adding en to this more ancient plural. The Anglo-Saxon plural was 
cildru or cildi*a. So, here, as in a thousand other cases, the aberration 
from the real analogies, and old established rules of language — the 
Munder^ if you please — is chargeable to the educated and fash ion-fol- 
lowing class, not to the common people. 

(4) According to present custom, the plural form l)r others is 
employed, when we intend to express the natural relation subsisting 
between children of the same parents ; and 'brethren^ when we apply 
the word figuratively to designate the fellow members of the same 
profession, or society ; as Christian ^brethren ; masonic brethren^ &c. 
(5) In the earlier language, and particularly in the authorized version 
of the Bible, the form brethren is employed in the literal sense to ex- 
press the relation of sons of the same parent ; as, Joseph''s brethren^ 
&c. 

(6) Plurals in en were much more common in old English. We 
find such forms as hosen^ plural of hose ; shooen^ or shoon (not yet alto- 
gether out of use in some parts of Britain), plural of shoe ; bischopen^ 
plural of bischop — now written bishop^ &c. 

(7) "We have noticed already that a few nouns form the plural by a 
radical change — a change of the vowel sound of the root. This me- 
thod of formation is hkely of earlier date than any of which traces 
have come down to the present time. We have already enumerated 
the few nouns which still retain plurals of this form ; § 42 : 13. 

(8) The word penny takes pence for plural, when we mean to ex- 
press a sum of money ; but pennies^ when we mean to refer to the 
pieces of coin. The words six pence mean so much money — ^it may be 
contained in a single silver coin — but the words six pennies mean six of 
the copper coins, of which we call each one a penny.* 



* The word pence, accompanied by a numeral, assumes a plural form ; 
as, two six pences, &c. Here, as to form, we have a double plural. As re- 

(3) "What remarks are made in regard of the plural form children ? 

(4) What is said of the use of the plm-al forms brothers and 'brethren ? (5) How was 
the form brethren used in former times ? 

(6) Kepeat what is said of plurals in en in Old English. 

(7) Eepeat what is said of plurals formed by a radical change. 

(8) Mention the plural forms of penny and their distinct uses. Give the illustration. 



§43.] 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



61 



(9) Bice is the plural form of die used in play ; bnt die, a stamp, 
has the regular plural form dies. 

(10) The nouns, deer and sheep, are the same in the singular and in 
the plural. Swine, often given as the plural of sow, generally means 
the species. When we speak of a number of the animals, we use the 
regular form, two sows, &o. 

(11) Many words of foreign origin retain the plural form of the lan- 
guage from which they are adopted. (12) Some have two plural forms, 
one their original form, the other, a regular English form ; as, cherub, 
plural cherubim or cherubs — the first the Hebrew, the second the Eng- 
lish plural. In the same manner genius, a spirit, has the plural genii ; 
but genius, a person of extraordinary intellectual power, has for plural 



geniuses. Index, an algebraic term, has indices for plural ; index, a 



table of reference, has the English form. 

We subjoin a list of the principal words which commonly take 
foreign plurals. To those which have sometimes a plural of the Eng- 
lish form we add E. pl.=English plural : 



(13) Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Alumnus. 


Alumni. 


Arcanum. 


Arcana. 


Amanuensis. 


Amanuenses. 


Axis. 


Axes. 


Analysis. 


Analyses. 


Bandit. 


Banditti, E. pi. 


Animalculum. 


Animalcula. 


Basis. 


Bases. 


Antithesis. 


Antitheses. 


Beau. 


Beaux. 


Oherub. 


Cherubim, E. pi. 


Medium. 


Media, E. pi. 


Crisis. 


Crises. 


Memorandum. 


Memoranda, E. pi. 


Criterion. 


Criteria. 


Metamorphosis 


. Metamorphoses. 


Datum. 


Data. 


Nebula. 


Nebulas. 


Effluvium. 


Effluvia. 


Oasis. 


Oases. 


Ellipsis. 


Ellipses. 


Parenthesis. 


Parentheses. 


Erratum, 


Errata. 


Phenomenon. 


Phenomena. 


Eocus. 


Foci. 


Eadius. 


Kadii. 


Formula. 


Formulae. 


Seraph. 


Seraphim, E. pi. 


Fungus. 


Fungi, E. pi. 


Speculum. 


Specula. 


Genius. 


Genii, E. pi. 


Stimulus. 


Stimuli. 


gavds thought, 


our mind contemplate 


3 a sixpence as a single object. The 


conception is of 


a unit, and hence susc 


.eptible oi plurality. 



(9) State the facts in regard of the word die. 

(10) The facts in regard of the words deer, sheep, swine. 

(11) What is said of some words of foreign origin ? (12) What further fact in regard of 
some of these ? Give examples. 

(13) What is the plm-al form of alumnus ? «fec. 



68 



STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. 



[§43. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plv/ral. 


Genus. 


Genera. 


Stratum. 


Strata. 


Hypothesis. 


Hypotheses. 


Thesis. 


Theses. 


Index. 


Indices, E. pi. (11) 


Vertebra. 


Vetebrse 


Lamina. 


Lamina. 


Vertex. 


Vertices. 


Magns. 


Magi. 


Vortex. 


Vortices. 



"We might add to this Hst, as words of this description are daily in- 
creasing in the language. But as such words are generally (especially 
those newly imported) only used by persons who understand the lan- 
guages from which they come, it is less necessary to give a complete 
enumeration. (14) We now commonly use Messieurs — by contraction 
Messrs. as the plural of Mr.; as the Messrs. Thomson, or Messrs. 
Thomson and Adams. The old fashion was to say the Mr. Thom- 
sons ; and Mr. Thomson and Adams. In the same manner we now 
say the two Misses Thomson. Formerly it was more common to say 
the two Miss Thomsons. M§sdames for the plural of Mrs., so far as 
we know, occurs rarely, if at all. 

(15) In regard to compound words, such as take after the princi- 
pal word in the compound another word or words (as a modifica- 
tion or complement) form the plural by adding the s sound to the 
principal word ; as, commander-in-chiefs pi. commanders-in-chief. 
Here, in-chief is a mere complement of commander. The same applies 
to the words father-in-law., son-in-laic, aide-de-camp., &c. 

(16) When the principal word comes last, it of course takes the 
plural modification. (17) Sometimes both words assume the plural 
form, but in such cases the words are scarcely to be reckoned com- 
pounds, but rather nouns in apposition. We have examples in men- 
servants, women-servants, knights-templars. 

(18) Nouns used only in the Plueal Form. — Some nouns, being 
the names of things formed double by nature or by art, are used only 
in the plural ; as, 'bellows., lungs., scissors., tongs., ^j^Micers, &c. 

(19) ISTouNS USED ONLY IN THE SINGULAR FoEM. — Propcr uames, 
when used strictly as such, that is, when used appropriately to a single 
individual, have necessarily no plural form. When nouns, originally 



(14) What is said of the plural of Mr. ? &c. 

(15) What of compounds, when complementary words follow the principal word? 

(16) What Avhen the principal word comes last in the compound f (17) What is said of 
compound words in which both words take the plural form ? 

(18) Describe the nouns which are used only in the plural form ; and give examples. 

(19) Tell the first class of nouns used only in the singular form. Notice apparent excep- 
tions. 



§ 43.] FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 69 

proper^ are usurped to name a class, they have pkirals ; as, The O^sars, 
The Tudors, &c. 

(20) Most abstract nouns are never used in the plural. Some 
of them are occasionally employed as names of classes of abstract 
attributes, and then assume a plural form, being used for the time in 
the same manner as common nouns ; for example, we say the virtues 
of justice and benevolence. But this is a deviation from the special 
use of abstract nouns, which is to express an attribute regarded in all 
its universality as a single conception. When we speak of virtue, we 
mean the attribute virtuous in its whole extent, and this admits of no 
plural ; but when we say the virtue of prudence, we imply that the 
conception of virtue admits of subdivision of parts, and consequently 
the name must admit a plural form. (See § 26.) 

(21) The names of substances which are not divided into percepti- 
ble parts or portions, and of which, consequently, we cannot determine 
the quantity, by mere enumeration of these parts, but only by mea- 
sure or weight, are seldom used in the plural form. (22) Such words 
as, butter^ lard., pitchy toax, gold^ silver^ iron^ &c., are for this reason 
never used in the plural form.* 

(23) Several nouns having plural terminations are employed in the 
construction of propositions, sometimes with the singular, sometimes 
with the plural form of the verb. (24) The nouns, means^ wages (see 



^ For the same reason assigned above, namely, that the quantity of the 
substances which they represent i-s always ascertained by weight, the nouns 
wool, tea, sugar, <fec., are never used in the plural form, except when we 
speak of different sorts of these commodities. Thus, we speak of the wools 
of Spain, and the wools of Saxony ; of green teas and black teas, &c. Many 
things, such as the large fruits, apples, pears, peaches, plums, though their 
quantity is generally ascertained by measure, present themselves in a form 
which suggests the ideas of unity and plurality. They are capable of being 
counted, and are, in fact, usually retailed by number. But the metals, and 
some other substances never present themselves in such a manner as to sug- 
gest the notion either of unity or plurality, except when formed into regular 
masses, or manufactured into useful or ornamental articles ; and then these 
masses or manufactured articles are known by their own appropriate names ; 
as ingots oi gold, or silver, bars of iron, guineas, dollars, cups, goblets,&c., &c. ; 
so that a plural form of the name of the material is wholly unnecessary. 



(20) Eepeat what is said of atstract ncnms in reference to this matter. 

(21) Describe a class of names of substances used only in the singular. (22) Give ex- 
amples. 

(23) Eepeat what is said of some nouns having plural terminations. (24) Q-ive exam- 



'70 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 43. 

Gen. 30 : 28 ; Hag. 1:6; Rom. 6 : 23), amends^ are of this class, with 
ethics^ matliematics^ 2:)'hysics^ and many similar names of sciences. 

(25) IsTews, though a plural form, is treated in construction as singular. 

(26) The noun ^j'ai/z^, in the sense of trovMe^ laboi\ is employed in con- 
struction, sometimes as singular, sometimes as plural. (27) Modern 
usage inclines to the employment of this word exclusively as plural. 
(28) Eiclies^ originally a singular noun (richesse) introduced from the 
French language, seems to have been taken by the uneducated for a 
plural, because it ends in an s sound, and hence it has come to be 
treated as a plural form in grammatical construction. (29) The word 
always takes plural verbs, and is represented by plural pronouns : 
" Eiches certainly maJce themselves wings ; they fly away," &c. 

(30) The word alms is also originally a singular form. This word 
has come in the same way to be treated generally in the language of 
the present day as a plural. (31) It is (at least, sometimes) recognised 
as a singular form by older writers ; for example, " Asked an alms.'''' 
(Acts 3:3.) 

ExEEcisE I., II., &c. — ^Let the learner form propositions having for 
their subject a given number of the above exceptions to the general 
rule for the formation of plurals.] 

pies. (25) What of the noun news f (26) What of pains, in the sense of trouble f (27) 

What is said of modern usage in this matter ? (28) What is said of the word ricJies ? (29) 
What form of verbs does it take, and what pronouns represent it ? Give example. 

(30) What is said of the word alms ? (31) Has it ever been treated as singular ? Ex- 



CHAPTER III. 



OF THE VERB 



§ 44. Preliminary Remark. — (1) It is the usual practice, both 
in Grammars and in Dictionaries, to employ the infinitive (the verbal 
noun with the prefix to, noticed in § 27) to designate any particular 
verb. (2) Thus, the word which asserts being is called the verb to 
be, the word which asserts writing the verb to write, &c. (3) It will 
be convenient in compliance with universal usage to retain this 
manner of indicating verbs ; though apparently inconsistent with 
the definition of verbs which we have given, since the verbal with the 
prefix to is not assertive, and therefore not a verb, according to our 
definition. (4) The learner will therefore please remember that 
when we use this form of expression, the verb to write, the verb to 
think, &c., we do not mean that the words to write, to think, are 
themselves verbs, but to express concisely (what may be more fully 
expressed) the verb which asserts the action to write, or of ivriting — 
the verb which expresses the action to think, &c. 

(5) We here repeat the definition of the verb which we have 
adopted : viz.. The verb is that word in a proposition which 
EXPRESSES assertion. As wc arrange in the class of verbs all the 
words and only the words which perform the peculiar and readily 
recognised function of asserting, the learner, after a little practice, 
can find no difficulty in distinguishing them. 

Classification of Verbs in reference to their Meaning. — 
(6) The first striking distinction, in reference to meaning which ar- 
rests our attention, is that between verbs, which express alone a 
complete predicate — form a full rational assertion respecting the 

§ 44. (1) How are particular verbs designated in gramvmars and dieUonaries ? (2) Il- 
lustrate by an example. (3) What is said of the practice of indicating verbs in this man- 
ner ? (4) Repeat the caution given to the learner. 

(5) Repeat the definition of a verl) and the remark which follows. 

(6) Mention a striking distinction among verbs in reference to their meaning. (7) Illus- 



72 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 44. 

subject of the proposition — and those which do not express a predi 
cate without the help of other words to complete them. (7) For 
example, the verbs gi^ow and sleep express a complete predicate — a 
complete assertion. Uniting the subject nouns, corn and boys, with 
the verbs grows and sleep respectively, we form two complete pro- 
positions containing rational assertions ; corn grows ; boys sleep. 
But such verbs as make and give will not form complete predicates, 
or complete assertions. If I say men make, or men give, I expi*ess 
no complete sense. Some completing word must be placed after 
them in order to form a proposition ; as. The man makes ploughs ; 
the man gives lessons, &c. (8) Regarded in this point of view, 
verbs might be divided into complete or perfect verbs, and incom- 
plete or imperfect verbs. 

Perhaps the most complete classification of verbs founded on their 
meaning (as distinct from their form), and having reference to 
constructional arrangements, would be one which should distribute 
them according to the forms of the complements or modifications of 
which they are susceptible. Following this method, we should have 
a class of verbs which, without any comjylement or modification, ex- 
press a rational predicate, a class of verbs which require a complement 
indicating a passive or suffering object, a class of verbs which require 
complements, indicating both a passive and a personal object, a class 
of verbs which take a 2^'^ssive and a factitive object to complete them, 
a class of verbs which require an adverb, &c. Such a classification 
would lead to details unsuited to the present stage of our progress in 
grammatical analysis. All the useful purposes which it could eflect 
will be effected, whilst we examine and discuss hereafter the several 
complements of verbs. When our discussion is completed, a classifica- 
tion founded on this principle can, if requisite, be more readily made, 
and more easily comprehended by the learner. 

But though the division of verbs into comp)lete and incomplete 
verbs, subdividing the incomplete into classes in reference to the forms 
of complements necessary to constitute them rational predicates, is per- 
haps the most philosophical, we defer (for the reasons assigned) in- 
troducing it for the present, (9) and confine ourselves to the old and 
generally received classification, which is exclusively used in all our 
dictionaries as well as oi-ammars, and for this reason claims the 



trate this distinction by examples. (8) Into wtiat classes might verbs be divided in refer- 
ence to this fact ? 



§ 45.] CLASSIFICATION". VERBS NEUTER AND ACTIVE. YS 

attention of the learner. (9) It claims attention also as preparatory 
to the explanation of what is called the passive voice of verbs. 

§ 45. (1) This classification divides verbs (on the principle of 
their requiring or not requiring one particular form of complement) 
into intransitive and transitive^ or, to use the more ancient names, 
neuter verbs and active verbs. (2) The distinction between these two 
classes is this, in what are called intransitive or neuter verbs, that 
which is asserted or predicated terminates in the subject of the asser- 
tion — affects only the subject. (3) Thus, when we say, " Corn 
groivs,^^ we predicate the action of groiving of the subject corn, as 
terminating in the corn. The act of growing is not such as affects 
directly any other object beyond the subject of which it is asserted. 
(4) Hence, this class of verbs has been appropriately called, by some 
modern grammarians, subjective verbs, as the action which they ex- 
press terminates in the subject. 

(5) On the contrary, the transitive or active verbs express an 
action which does not terminate in the subject, but passes over on 
some other object either expressed or implied in the proposition. 
(6) Thus in the example used above, " the man makes a table," the 
action of making passes over upon the object made — " the table,'''' 
which undergoes or suffers the action. (7) The object which un- 
dergoes the action expressed by the verb is called, to distinguish it 
from other objects of the verb's action, the suffering ox passive ob- 
ject. (8) From the fact that the action of these verbs passes over, 
they have been called transitive verbs. Transitive means \hsii passes 
over. (The reason for which they have been called active verbs is to 
be explained presently.) (9) These verbs have also been appropri- 
ately named objective verbs, because the action which they express 
has always reference to some object external to the subject, and a 
word expressive of this object is necessary to complete them — that 



(9) What reasons are assigned for giving attention to the old classification ? 

§ 45. (1) Give the names of the two divisions of verbs according to this classification. 
(2) State the peculiarities which distinguish neuter or intransiUm verbs. (3) Illustrate by 
examples. (4) By what name have these neuter verbs been appropriately called by some 
modern gi-ammarians ? 

(5) Describe the active or transitive verbs. (6) Illustrate by example, (f) What name 
is given to the object which undergoes the action of the verb ? (8) What does th-e term 
trmiMUve mean, and why is it applied to this class of verbs? (9) What other name has 



74 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 45. 

is to enable tliem to form a rational predicate. (10) We shall re- 
tain the old names neuter and active^ or intransitive and transitive^ 
whicli, as we understand and use them, are equivalent, viz., intran- 
sitive to neuter, and transitive to active. 

(11) Every verb that always expresses a complete predicate 
belongs of course to the class of neuter or intransitive verbs. (12) 
But many verbs which cannot make complete sense without modi- 
fying words belong also to the class of neuter verbs — that is, of 
verbs expressing an action terminating in the subject of which it is 
asserted. (13) Thus the verb behaves will not form a complete as- 
sertion without the help of another word. The boy behaves is not 
a complete assertion. To express complete sense, we must say, the 
boy behaves, well or behaves ill, or use some other words expressive of 
the manner of his behavior. [(14) Still this verb requires no pas- 
sive object. The action of behaviiig passes over upon no other ob- 
ject ; it terminates in the subject. If we place after it a word in the 
form of an objective compleniwnt.^ it must be a word expressive of 
the same person with the subject noun ; as in the example, the boy 
behaves himself well. Here himself refers to the same individual 
expressed by the subject noun — boy. We cannot say that, the boy 
behaves any other person or any other thing, well or ill, &c. That 
is, the verb behaves can take after it no suffering or^;a55tz;e object 
distinct from the subject of which it is asserted. In other words, 
the action terminates in the subject?^ 

(15) It has been already noticed that all the verbs of the class 
which we have ventured to name complete verbs, admit of modify- 
ing or completing words, but none of them admit of the modifica- 
tion of a passive object ; they do not express an action which can 
pass over on an object distinct from the subject of which they are 
employed to make an assertion. The importance of this distinction 
among verbs, will be better understood, when we come to treat of 
the various forms of modifications or comj)lements which we attach 

been given to them ? And why ? (10) What names do we adopt ? (11) To Avhich of these 
classes do the complete verbs belong ? (12) Are any of the incomplete verbs also neuter ? 
(13) Illustrate by an example. [(14) Repeat what is said in farther illustration of the ex- 
ample.] 

(15) Do the verbs which we have called complete verbs admit of completing words ? 
Can they be completed by a noun expressive of a passive object ? 



§ 45.] CLASSIFICATION. VERBS NEUTER AND ACTIVE. 75 

to them in order to form complete predicates ; and when we come 
to consider the passive form. 

[(16) The nature of the distinction between active and neuter 
verbs may perhaps be rendered more intelhgible by the exhibition of 
examples of neuter verbs which are manifestly equivalent to certain 
other active verbs, together with a noun expressing a particular pas- 
sive object. Participate^ for instance, is equivalent to the verb talae 
with the noun _pari employed as its passive object. Participate^ to 
take part. Here take — the active verb — is obviously the less complete 
of the two, since it requires the complementary word^ari in order to 
render it equivalent to participate.*] 



* We may here notice the advantage gained in language by employing, 
as we commonly do, verbs expressive of incomplete predicates, instead of 
always employing verbs expressive at once of an action .and the object which 
this action immediately affects. The word participate, means exclusively 
to take part. Indeed it is a compound of two Latin words, the one of 
which means part and the other take. But the word take may have a vast 
number of other modifications designating passive objects attached to it be- 
sides this, and with each of these it will express a distinct assertion ; as take 
advice, take courage, take counsel, take time, &c., &c. And, it will be ob- 
served that all the words employed to express these modifications are ne- 
cessary for other purposes besides this. They are not invented and added to 
the language for this sole purpose, but already previously existed as names 
to be used for subject nouns. This is only a secondary use to which they are 
applied. Now if we had a separate form, as in the case of the word par- 
ticipate, to express the verb take with each of the passive objects which may 
modify it, we should have a considerable number of words added to the lan- 
guage to express assertions which are sufficiently expressed by the verb take, 
repeated with certain words already in use for other necessary purposes. 
When we reflect that what we have now said of the verb take applies to a 
host of other verbs, we shall be able to conceive what vast economy of 
words has been effected by the subdivision of thought in the process of 
forming signs to give it expression. Were not only verbs modified by ob- 
jective complements, but verbs modified by all the other complements (of 
which we shall treat presently), serving to make up full and perfect predi- 
cates, to be expressed by separate distinct forms corresponding to each seve- 
ral modification, the increase of words would be still immensely greater. 
The next step in a retrograde direction would be to express every distinct 
proposition, subject, predicate, and all their several modifications by one dis- 

[(16) Illustrate the distiuction between acUvesaid. neuter verbs by the example of the 
verb participate.] 



76 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 45. 

[(17) We must not omit to notice that frequently the same word 
is used both as an active and a neuter verb — but, let it be remem- 
bered, with very different meanings. (IS) Thus, The ship sinks, 
and TJie 2^ii'<^te sinks the shi}:). In the &st case the word sinks 
expresses an action which terminates in the subject, in the latter case 
an action which necessarily passes over upon a suffering or jpassive 
object; that is, an object which suffers^ or receives, or is affected 
directly by the action. (19) "We have similar examples in Glass 
breaks, and John breaks the glass ; The wood bums, and The man 
burns the ivood ; Williarti feels warm, and The physician feels the 
2Mtienfs pulse, (kc. (20) Here the verbs, " breaks,''^ " burns,^'' "/eeZs," 
are used both transitively and intransitively, in an active and in a 
neuter sense, but the meaning of these words, when employed transi- 
tively and intransitively, is totally different ; the actions asserted in the 
two cases are altogether unlike. (2) The action of burning asserted 
of the wood in the one case, and the action of burning asserted of 
the man who uses wood as fuel in the other case, are as unlike as 
almost any other two actions. Both agree in being attended by 
the same phenomenon — the combustion of wood, and from this 
come to be expressed by the same word, the same sign. The verb 
burns has a third meaning distinct fi-om the two already mentioned ; 
as, for example, when we say. The fire burns any substance placed 
near it. The fire burns the boy^s clothes. (22) In regard to most 
of these verbs doubly employed, as active and as neuter verbs, the 
neuter seems to be the primitive or original use, and the active a 
secondary use usm-ped in the progTess of the language. (23) Many 

tinct sign. A language of this kind would be whoUy unmanageable and 
nearly useless in the intercourse of life. We reap much advantage from the 
complex method adopted for the purpose of expressing thought — the method 
of employing propositions consisting of numerous signs (words) orderly ar- 
ranged. "We should not, therefore, ^complain, if this complex arrangement 
sometimes occasions a Httle trouble in grammatical analysis, and often ren- 
ders great care necessary on the part of the speaker and wi-iter to avoid am- 
biguity and obscurity. 



[(17) What is said of the same word being employed hoth in a nenter and in an active 
sense? (IS) Illustrate by an example. (19) Gire other examples. (20) What is said of 
the difference of meaning in all these examples between the active and neuter verb ? (21) 
Illustrate in tho case of i^rrn in a nerder, and hvrn in an active sense. (22) Which ap- 



§ 46.] REMARKS ON THE VERB TO BE. '77 

of these verbs, in their usurped, active, or transitive use, belong to 
the class which the grammarians have called causatives. In the 
active use they signify to cause to do that which the neuter verb 
expresses. For example. The pirate sinks the ship^ that is, The 
pirate causes the ship to sink. The farmer hums wood, that is, 
causes wood to burn for fuel.] 

Exercise I,^ — Let the learner point out the verbs in a given lesson, 
distinguishing the neuter and active verbs, assigning his reason for 
calling them verbs, and his reason for classing them among the active 
or neuter verbs, as the case may be. 

Model of Analysis. — Example 1. — Commerce and manufactures 
flourish together. The verb in this proposition is flourish.^ because this 
word expresses the assertion. Flourish is a neuter or intransitive verb, 
because it expresses an action terminating in the subject.^ and not pass- 
ing over upon any object suffering that action, or directly affected by 
it. We cannot say that commerce or manufactures flourish any per- 
son or any thing. 

Example 2. — Perseverance overcomes difficulties. The verb or as- 
sertive word here is " overcomes.^'' This verb is active or transitive, 
since it expresses an action which passes over directly on a passive 
object. In this case, the object is expressed by the word difficulties. 
The action expressed by " overcomes^'' does not termin-ate in the subject. 

Exercise II. — Let the learner furnish a written list of twenty or 
more neuter verbs, and give his reasons for assigning them to this class. 

Exercise III. — A similar list of active verbs, with reasons assigned 
for the classification. 

Exercise IY. — A list of verbs used both in an active and in a neu- 
ter sense. 

These exercises to be repeated till the learner understands com- 
pletely hoAV to distinguish neuter and active verbs. 

§ 46. [(1) Among the intransitive verbs there is one which 
merits our special notice on account of its frequent employment in 
language, and yet more on account of its peculiar significance — we 
mean the verb which is used to assert existence or being, commonly 
called the verb to be. (2) This verb assumes, when employed 
. assertively, the forms am, is, ' are, was, were, &c., according to the 

pears to be the primitive use of most of these verbs ? (23) What is said of the active sense 
of many of these verbs ?] 

§ 46, [(1) What intransitive verb merits special notice ? Tell the reason. (2) What 



^8 STRUCTI-RE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 46. 

person and nnmber of tlie subject noun. (3) The verb to he lias 
been generally considered as the terb, by way of pre-eminence, and 
has hence been called the substantive verb. (4) These distinctions 
have been bestOTved on this vrord because it has been supposed not 
only to possess pecuhar significance, but to perform r i^eculiar function 
in propositions, (o) It has been recognised, both by log-icians and 
gTammarians, as ordinarily expressing the simple copula, and there- 
fore essential to all propositions, and ahvays implied when not ex- 
pressed in every assertive word. (6) According to this \'iew all 
other verbs imply this copula or verb, to be, and express, at the 
same time, an attribute, and from this fact are called adjective verbs, 
being, as is supposed, made up of the substantive verb and an attri- 
bute or adjective. (7) This opinion of a peculiar grammatical 
function pertaining to the verb, expressive of existence, though 
almost universally admitted since the days of Aristotle, we think, 
will aj^pear, on careful examination, destitute of a solid foundation. 
(8) And, so long as it is maintained, it stands, as it seems to us, 
a serious obstacle in the way of those who attempt a lucid and con- 
sistent analysis of language. (9) The verb is, in our opinion (an 
opinion not rashly formed), expresses a predicate, oy pMi'tial predicate 
(namely, beixg), and indicates a copula, like all other verbs. (10) 
The real difference, the only difference is between the predicate which 
this verb asserts and the predicates asserted by other verbs. (11) 
Other verbs are nearly all used to assert action (we mean action in 
the most enlarged sense), this to assert being or existence, which it 
must be acknowledged is a very peculiar conception, and which has 
intimate relation with the subject matter of our other conceptions. 
(12) TTere we to attempt to explain the conception of being or entity, 
and its relation with other conceptions, we might, like many who 
have gone before us, readily involve ourselves in a maze of meta- 
physical subtleties. (13) Happily this task does not lie in our way. 

are the usual assertive forms of ttie verb to 1)6 f (3) In what light has this verb been gen- 
erally regarded ? (4) Why have such distinctions been bestowed upon this word ? (5) 
What peculiar function does it exclusively perform according t/) the notions of grammarians 
and logicians ? (6) What do all the verbs according to this view imply, and what have they 
in consequence been called ? (T) What is said of this notion ? (8) What is the effect of 
maintaining it? (9) What opinion is here expressed of the verb is ? (10) What appears to 
be the real and only difference between the verb to "be and other verbs ? (11) Illustrate this 
viewof the subject (12) What is said of explaining the conception of being? (13) Has 



§ 46.] REMARKS ON THE VERB " TO BE." 19 

(14) We simply contend that tlie verb to be has, grammatically 
considered, no function that distinguishes it from other verbs ; what- 
ever may be the metaphysical mysteries connected with the concep- 
tion which it expresses. (15) In the proposition, for example, The 
steward is faithful, what we assert of the steward is the predicate 
BEING, modified or completed by the word faithful. " Being faith- 
fuV is asserted in the proposition, and not simply '-'• faithful^'' as 
the logicians and grammarians generally have inadvertently main- 
tained.] 

Note. — The doctrine in regard to the verb to be, presented above, 
may seem novel to some of our readers, who have been taught to 
consider this verb as expressing the naked copula. We were taught 
so to consider it, and never doubted till recently of the soundness 
of the ancient and common doctrine in reference to this subject. 
We had written a large part of a treatise on grammatical analy- 
sis in conformity with the common view of this matter. In the pro- 
gress of the work we encountered difiiculties which we could not sur- 
mount, inconsistencies which we could not reconcile, whilst we ad- 
hered to the current opinion entertained of the verb to be. Though 
the distinction stated above, and the innovation proposed in the man- 
ner of analyzing propositions may appear of small moment to a super- 
ficial observer, we are assured that it will not so appear to intelligent 
and well-informed grammarians. Such will anticipate that very im- 
portant changes in the mode of conducting gramrhatical analysis will 
necessarily follow from this new view of the so called substantive verb. 
And they will readily trace these changes in other parts of this trea- 
tise. We appeal to the judgment of our readers, as we have hereto- 
fore appealed to the judgment of others in conversation, without ever 
once failing of obtaining a verdict in favor of our view of the matter, 
when fully and plainly stated. We put to them the following simple 
question ; their answer will decide whether they hold to the old doc- 
trine, or agree with our views : In the proposition, " The steward is 
faithful,^'' is it simply '"'' faithful " that is asserted of the steward, or is 
it '-'•being faitliful,^\ thdii is asserted of him? If the latter, as we 
maintain, and as all to whom we have presented the subject, after de- 
liberation have admitted ; then the verb is, grammatically considered, 
differs in no respect from other intransitive verbs. It may be modified, 



the grainmaiiaii any thing to do with this task ? (14) What is here asserted of the verb to 
le ? (15) Illustrate by an example.] 



80 STRUCTURE OF LA]S"GUAGE. [§ 46. 

as "we shall presently see, by the same kind of complements as other 
neuter verbs, and by no kind of complement different from those 
which some of them admit. The analysis of the propositions in 'which 
it is used as the assertive word, presents, under this view, no peculiarity. 
Owing to its pecuhar meaning, it is more frequently used than any 
other verb. And owing also to this peculiar meaning it happens, that 
in the English language every kind of action asserted by all the other 
verbs, with a few exceptions (see § 62), can be asserted by this verb, 
completed by the verbal adjective in ing (or perhaps rather the i>er- 
dal noun) formed from the other verbs respectively. (See § 64). This 
capabihty of such universal application, and especially of serving Avith 
the help of a verbal to assert substantially the same predicates which 
are asserted by the other verbs, has, no doubt, originated, or at least 
given greater currency to the notion so generally entertained, that 
this verb is simply a co'pula — an instrument to indicate assertion — 
and, consequently, that it is implied in all other verbs. The action, 
for example, of growing can be predicated either by using the word 
grows, or by using the words is growing. The corn grows, or the corn 
is growing. But when we come to the close analysis of the latter pro- 
position, we find that it contains an element which the other does not. 
In the proposition, corn grows, growing simply is asserted of the com ; 
but in the proposition, corn is growing, being growing is asserted. 
These two propositions, in the current usage of the language, are em- 
ployed for different purposes, as having a recognised difference of mean- 
ing. The one cannot, with propriety, in all cases be substituted for 
the other. Corn grows, is a proposition always true, but corn is grow- 
ing, is only true in the season when corn is actually in a state of 
growth. In the former case growing is asserted indefinitely, in the 
latter it is asserted as actually existing audi progressive. 

'We may notice here, that a large proportion of all the propositions 
which we have occasion to use in the intercourse of life, are those 
in which the existence of some quality or property is asserted of some 
subject. In constructing all such, propositions, the verb which predicates 
existence performs a part. Add to this, what we have just mentioned 
above, that the same verb is used with the verbals in ing, to express 
action in actual existence, or going on at a time indicated, besides 
(what we are about to consider) that the passive form in our language 
is made by means of this verb, and we shall not be surprised to find that 
the several assertive forms of the verb to be come into constant use in 
discourse. 

Before we conclude this note (perhaps not unnecessarily long for 
the vindication of the course which we have pursued in the treatment of 



§ 46.] REMARKS ON THE VERB " TO BE." 81 

tlie verb to de^ and the copula of propositions, &c.), we may mention 
briefly, for the benefit of those who are curious in these matters, some 
of the difiiculties which we encountered in pursuing our analysis on 
the old method (namely, considering the verb to he as the real copula 
of all propositions), and which difiiculties have been the occasion of 
leading us first to doubt of the soundness of the common views of the 
copula, and finally, to reject these views. 

One of these difficulties arose from matters already presented in 
this note. How shall we establish a distinction, according to the com- 
mon theory, that is constitutes simply the copula (or simply indicates 
predication), between such assertions as, 1st, corn grows., and 2d, corn 
is growing ? What is asserted of corn in the first of these propositions ? 
Is it not plainly the act expressed by growing f And if is merely in- 
dicates assertion, what but growing is asserted in the second ? And 
yet all must admit that the two propositions are not equivalent, are 
not always, or (what is the same thing) completely interchangeable. 
It may be replied, that growing, which we assert is predicated in the 
first case, is a noun ; and growing, in the second example, is a partici- 
ple. Suppose we admit this, how will it help the objector and the 
advocate of the old view ? Is an action expressed in the second pro- 
position ? If so, how comes it to be expressed by a participle, and not 
by a siibstantive name of that action ? Here is a new difiiculty. But, 
waving this, how will this plea that growing in the second proposition 
is a participle, help to explain the difference between the two proposi- 
tions ? The difficulty, it will be seen already, is easily solved, if we ad- 
mit is to be, like other verbs, a predicate, or partial predicate, indicat- 
ing at the same time assertion. Is, according to this view, as we 
have seen above, asserts leing. And in the assertion, corn is growing, 
being growing is what is asserted of the corn, that is, being, or exist- 
ence in tTiat qualified state expressed by the attributive word growing. 
But we suspect that growing is, in the above use, rather the noun in 
ing than a participle. (See § 64.) 

Again, in many cases, is is employed as a complete predicate. As 
in the examples, God is, " Joseph is not, Simeon is not ;" " Time was, 
but time shall be no more." In the first of these examples, being 
without any modification is asserted of God=to God exists; in the 
last, being in the past is asserted of time. The cases in which the 
verb to be is employed to express a full predicate in our language, are 
far more numerous, than at first sight appears. The propositions in 
our language where the verb to be expresses the complete predicate, 
are generally introduced by the words it or there. Examples, It is 
winter. It was auMimn. 



82 STRUCTI-RE OF LAXGUA&E. [§ 46. 

" 'Ticas All-Souls* Eve, and Smrey's heart beat Mgh." 
There are men -who thiiik, &c.=nieii who think:, &c., are ; that is (the 
predicate), dei?ig is asserted of " men who tJiinh'''' so and so. The fact 
that the verh to de in snch instances expresses a fall predicate, is some- 
what disguised hy the form of expression. But surely it, in the first 
class of examples, serves only as a substitute for the real subject which 
immediately follows the verb, and neither it nor any thing else serves 
as a complement of the predicate. In the first example, simple exist- 
ence in an implied present time, is predicated of winter, and in the 
second, past existence is predicated of autumn. In the examples com- 
mencing with there (whatever may have been the origin of this form 
of expression, whether it is an imitation of the French Il-y-a^ occa- 
sioned by the importation of French idioms after the Xorman con- 
quest, or an insensible extension of the use of the word there, tUl it 
came to be employed incased where its original meaning was obscured, 
and finally lost), one thing is plain, that now this word adds no modi- 
fication to the predicate, but serves much the same general purpose as 
the word it does in the preceding examples ; that is, it serves to ena- 
ble us to throw the subject after the verb, and thus bring the subject 
noun into contact with the proposition (" men who think," &g.) which 
modifies it. This is the form of expression which we generally adopt 
to predicate mere beiiig or existence. To say. Men who thinJc so and 
so are, to express the mere existence of such men, is a manner of ex- 
pression unsanctioned by usage, contrary to our idiom, and which 
seems feeble and void of all harmony. The feebleness and want of 
harmony are, perhaps, the reason for rejecting it, and adopting the form 
commencing with there, in which the original meaning of there, namely, 
in thut place, is wholly suppressed, and the word comes to serve a sort 
of pronominal function. In many other languages, simple existence in 
such cases is expressed by the verb equivalent to our to be (by what in 
those languages is called the co^w?^ by logicians), without any accompa- 
nying word ; as for example, in Latin sunt (supply homines) qui 2)utent, 
&c. '^e subjoin a few more examples, from the authorised version of 
the Scriptures, of the verb to be, used to express a complete predicate : 
" That they are double to that which is." Job 11 : 6. - The grass of 
the field, which to-day is." :M:att. 6 : 30. '• He that cometh to God 
must beheve that He is."" Heb. 11:6. •• From him which is and which 
was.'''' Rev, 1:4. '* And there are seven kings : five are fallen, and 
one is,'''' &c. Eev. 17: 10. "And the beast that was, and is not." 
Rev. 17:11. 

Another dilficulty which presented itself whilst, in our attempts 
to give a satisfactory analysis of the structm-e of the language, we 



§ 47.] THE PASSIVE VOICE. 83 

recognised the verb to le as performing the function of a mere copula, 
was to ascertain the distinction between the grammatical functions 
performed by is, for example, in the proposition. The man is old,^ and 
the function performed by tecomes in the proposition, The man tecomes 
old, or by grows in the proposition. The man grows old, or by seems in 
the proposition, The man seems old. The difference of meaning of all 
these verbs is abundantly clear, but we could not discover or assign 
any grammatical distinction. Till this was done, we felt bound, if we 
called is the copula, to call lecomes^ grows^ seems^ &c., copulas. In this 
case, copulas would be numerous enough, since every verb which can 
take an adjective after it as a modification (and we shall find hereafter 
that there are many such) might claim this name. This was the dif- 
ficulty which actually arrested our progress, and the attempt to solve 
it has led to the conclusion, already stated, that between is and the 
other verbs mentioned above, there is no geammatioal, no func- 
tional DiFFEEENCE WHATEVEE ; that both it and they alike express a 
predicate, whilst, in common with all verbs, they indicate predication, 
that is, serve as copula ; consequently that there is no word in our 
language (and question, is there one in any other ?) which expresses a 
mere naked copula. 

§ 47. The Passive Voice. — (1) Besides the other uses of the 
verb to he, what is called the passive voice is formed in English, as in 
many other languages, by the combination of this verb with a class 
of verhals expressive of completed action formed from the other verbs. 
(2) For example, we say, using the active form, Tlie son loves the 
father, and using the passive form, The father is loved hij the son. 
Is loved, made up of the assertive form of the verb to he, with the 
word loved, a verhal adjective (or, as it is commonly called, partici- 
ple), expressive of completed action, constitutes, as we see here, the 
passive form of loves. 

(3) T]\Q passive voice or passive form is confined to that class of 
verbs which we have above named transitive or active verbs. (4) 
The passive form of these verbs affords us another way of express- 
ing the same proposition, that is, expressed by the active form. (5) 
When we employ the passive form, we make the word which, when 
vre use the active form of the^ verb, represents ihe passive or suffer- 

% 47. (1) How is the passive voice in Englisli formed ? (2) Illustrate by an example. 
(3) To what class of verbs is the passive voice or passive form confined ? (4) What 
does this form enable us to do ? (5) What change do we make in the subject noun, when 



84 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 47. 

ing object, the subject noun of tlie proposition. (6) Thus, using the 
active form, we say, The caiyenter makes a table, and, using the pas- 
sive form, A table is made by the carpenter. (7) This passive form 
of the verb is convenient when, as often happens, we wish to ex- 
press that some person or thing suffers, or undergoes an action per- 
formed by an agent unknown to us, and we cannot, therefore, sup- 
ply a definite subject for the proposition expressed actively. (8) For 
example, we can say, The man is killed, without knowing who has 
killed him ; The house was set on fire, without knowing the incen- 
diary, whose name would serve as the definite subject of the propo- 
sition made with the verb in the active form. (9) We have other 
means, it is true, of expressing the same fact by an active form. 
(10) We can assume an indefinite subject, such as is expressed by 
the indefinite words, somebody, something, and say, Somebody killed 
the man, Somebody or something set the house on fire. This form 
of expression is preferred in some languages. (11) But the passive 
form is not only often the most convenient in such cases as now 
described, but also sometimes useful for the purpose of securing 
greater variety and greater smoothness of expression. 

ExEECiSES. — Eemaek. — In the following exercises, the learner may 
be allowed to modify his subject noun by a determinative such as a, 
an, the, this, that, one, and these, those, two, three, &c., with plural 
nouns; or by any descriptive adjective, such as good, bad, faithful, 
&c. After the verb to be he may use any adjective, and after the 
active verb any noun necessary to complete its meaning, and after the 
j)assi'De form of the verb, the noun which serves as subject of the actwe 
form with the word by before it. The liberty of using these modifica- 
tions will facilitate his task in forming propositions. These modifica- 
tions win all be explained afterwards in their proper places. In the 
mean time, they cannot perplex the pupil Avho knows English. Use 
the word is in forming the passive when the subject noun is singular, 
and are when the subject noun is plural. 

Exercise I. — Change the following propositions into propositions 
expressing the same meaning, and having verbs of the passive form. 



we employ the passive form ? (6) Illustrate by an example. (7) When is the nse of this 
form convenient? (S) Illustrate by an example. (9) Can we effect the same purpose by 
an active form ? (10) Describe the way of employing an active form ? (11) For what other 
purposes is the passive voice convenient ? 



§ 47.] OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 85 

John writes a letter. Somebody strikes "William. James sends a 
message. The servant kindles a fire. The soldiers plunder the coun- 
try, the army vanquishes the enemy. He praises good men. He 
loves good boys. John detests dishonest practices. That man assists 
worthy persons. That man keeps three horses. Vice produces im- 
mense suffering. 

ExEEOiSES n. HI., &c. — "Write ten propositions, each expressed 
both actively and passively. Model : John keeps a gardener. A gar- 
dener is kept by John. We give the perfect participles of the verbs 
used above. These participles are to be used in the formation of 
the passive. Write, written ; strike^ strucJc; send, sent; keep, kept. 
The rest all end in ed. See list of those which do not end in ed^ § 67. 
[(12) We may here observe that it is to the existence of a pas- 
sive form of the verb in the Greek and Latin languages — a form 
constituted, to some extent, of the root of the verb modified by 
flexion without the aid, as in our language, of an additional word — 
that we owe the origin of the terms active, passive, and neuter, ap- 
plied to verbs. (13) The transitive verbs were susceptible both of 
an active form and a passive form ; that is, a form in which the 
subject of the proposition is the actor or agent, and a form in which 
the subject represents the recipient of the action, and is passive. 
(14) These verbs, when used in the one form, were called by the 
ancient grammarians active, and when used in the other form, pas- 
sive. (15) Or one form of the transitive verb was called by them 
the active voice, the other form the passive voice of the verb. (16) 
All active verbs, and none but active verbs, according to this classi- 
fication, are susceptible of a passive use and passive form. (17) All 
other verbs, not admitting of a passive object, and, consequently, 
not of a passive voice, they called neuter verbs ; that is (for neuter 
means neither), neither active nor passive verbs. (18) The subject 
of these verbs is by them neither asserted to act on an object dis- 
tinct from itself, nor to be the passive recipient of an action.] 

ll^oTE. — The foregoing remarks are the more necessary, because 
some modern grammarians seem to have misunderstood the principle 

[(12) To what do we owe the origin' of the terms active, passive, and neuter ? (13) Of 
what two forms are transitive verbs susceptible ? (14) How are they called when used in 
the one form, and how when used in the other ? (15) Express this otherwise. (16) What 
verbs alone are susceptible of a passive form ? (17) What are all other verbs called, and 
what does the name by which they are called mean? (18) What is said of the subject of 
neuter verts F] 



86 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 48. 

on whicli the ancient division is founded. They have, in consequence 
of this misunderstanding, in some cases suggested, in some cases 
adopted, a classification of verbs into " active transitive, active intran- 
sitive, passive and neuter ;" not observing that the term active is used 
by the ancient grammarians to indicate the same thing which is now 
indicated by transitive, and that, with the sense which the word ac- 
tive assumes in the old grammars, an active intransitive verb is an 
absurdity, and active transitive a useless repetition of equivalent 
terms. 

The ancient classification is (properly) founded on the basis of a 
distinction in the grammatical susceptibilities of verbs ; but the divi- 
sion into active transitive^ active intransitive^ &c., is founded on two 
bases — the grammatical susceptibilities of verbs, and their meaning as 
signs of thought. Verbs are called active from their meaning, their 
significance, and transitive or intransitive from the fact that they are 
susceptible, or, on the contrary, not susceptible of being modified by 
a passive object. A classification of this kind is illogical, and serves 
only to create confusion of thought, and diflicult}^ and embarrassment 
to the learner. 

"Were it not that many of our dictionaries retain the old names, 
active and neuter^ we should feeh disposed to discard these names alto- 
gether, and employ exclusively the more significant and less objection- 
able names, transitive and intransitive^ now generally used by gram- 
marians. But, whilst, in most dictionaries, the old names active and 
neuter are still used to designate this division of the verbs, and, in 
some more recent dictionaries, the terms transitive and intransitive 
are employed for the same purpose, it is necessary for the guidance of 
the learner in consulting dictionaries, that these two sets of terms 
should be familiar to him, and that he should remember that though 
the names are different, the classification designated by them is the 
same. 

§ 48. Tenses of Verbs. — (1) The most important modifica- 
tion of form which verbs undergo in our language is that employed 
to indicate the different times, to which an assertion has reference. 
(2) These forms are called the tenses of the verb. (3) The term 
tense is derived from the French language, in which it is the word 
to express time."^ 

* The Latin word tempris used to express this same modification of verbs 

§ 48. (1) What is the most important modification of the form of verbs ? (2) What 
name is given to this modification ? (3) Tell the derivation of the term teTise. 



§ 48.] OF TENSE. 87 

SUPPOSED HISTORY OF THE FORMATION OF TENSES IN THE NORTHERN 

DIALECTS. 

The following remarks in reference to the history of the forma- 
tion of tenses, especially in the Teutonic family of languages, may 
interest the inquisitive student of English Grammar : 

We may conceive the history of the formation of tenses to be this. 
First, the verb in its primary form (the root) was employed to make 
all kinds of assertions, whether in reference to the present, past, or 
future; that is, it was employed altogether indefinitely as regards 
time. But as past transactions (past events) form a large class of the 
subjects about which men have occasion to speak, it would be found 
convenient to have a form specially appropriated to this purpose, 
leaving all assertions about all other except past occurrences, to be 
expressed by the ancient indefiiiite form. As mankind generally, and 
especially in a rude age, do not make the future so much the theme 
of conversation as the past, which embraces all that traditionary and 
legendary lore which forms the whole literature of rude nations, a 
future tense would be a later invention. ' In fact, the ancient Teutonic 
dialects appear .never to have arrived at this stage of progress. They 
had no future tense. The modern languages founded on these dia- 
lects have supplied this defect, though generally in a somewhat clumsy 
and awkward manner. 

The first step towards a tense in the ancient Teutonic tongues, 
seems to have been to modify the vowel sound of the original verb, 
when the assertion had reference to a past event. Afterwards, they 
began to express the same distinction by an addition to the root — by 
what is called inflexion. This addition likely in the first instance, 
consisted of some significant word appended to the root. But this in 
time came to be so incorporated with the root, as to form with it a 
single word. In this state, we find the Anglo-Saxon, at the period 
when the old English begins to be formed from it. It possesses only 
one tense distinct from the original verb, formed in the words in most 
common use, and likely of most ancient origin, by a modification of 
the vowel sound of the root, and in the rest, by a termination. Be- 
sides this it possessed means less or more complete of distinguishing 
the conjunctive from the independent use of both these tenses, or 
what is called the subjunctive from the indicative mode. Our future 

in that language, and from wliich the French temps, English tense, is derived, 
also signifies time. 



88 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 48. 

tense and all the other componnd tense forms, whether expressive of 
time^ or of the condition of the action^ or of both, are the fruits of 
the (rather bungling) efforts of an age posterior to the Anglo-Saxon 
period, to express what is generally expressed in the languages ancient 
and modern of the South of Europe, by a complicated system of in- 
flexions. 

These historical remarks throw light upon several grammatical pe- 
culiarities. For example, the use of the indefinite tense on some occa- 
sions, and especially in colloquial forms of expression in speaking of 
what is past and future ; as, when we say, Plato writes beautifully, or 
reasons well, &c., and, I go to the country to-morrow. Such forms of 
expression will not surprise us, when we remember, that the form of 
the verb here employed was anciently used for assertions relating to 
all times, and till a comparatively recent period, always used to ex- 
press theficture. The more recent forms appropriated to express past 
time and future time, can in such instances be dispensed with, as the 
distinction of time is either not important to be considered, or suf- 
ficiently indicated by the sense, if not by the accompanying modifying 
words. 

[(4) In most languages, by what are called the tenses of verbs, 
more than mere time is indicated. (5) If time alone were indicated, 
we could have only four modifications at the most, viz., one to indi- 
cate that the assertion is made without reference to time, a second 
to indicate present time, a third to indicate past time, and a fourth 
to indicate future time (that is time to come). 

(6) For verbs by means of the forms called tenses do not gen- 
erally indicate time more definitely than this. (7) When greater 
precision in indicating time is required, recourse is had to additional 
modifying words expressive of the definite time intended. (8) 
Many languages have not forms of verbs sufficient to indicate dis- 
tinctly the three grand divisions of present, past, and fictiire time. 
(9) And most languages have no separate form to be used when 
there is no reference to time intended. (10) They employ for this 
purpose the same form by which present time is expressed. (11) 



[(4) Is more th3,n mere time indicated by tense forms ? (5) If time alone were indicated, 
how many teiises should we have ? (6) State the reason assigned. (7) How do we indicate 
time with greater precision ? (8) Have all languages forms sufficient to distinguish pre- 
sent, past, anifutiore ? (9) Have languages generally a distinct form to use Avhen there is 
no reference to time ? (10) What form usually serves this purpose ? (11) If time alone 



§ 48.] OF TENSE. 89 

Such languages, if time alone were indicated by the forms called 
tenses, should have only three tenses. (12) Yet some of these lan- 
guages have six or more forms called tenses. (13) The reason of 
this is that another modification of the sense of the verb, besides 
time, and distinct from time, is expressed by what are called tenses 
or ^mse /orms in most languages. (14) This fact seems, from the 
terms perfect and imperfect used in naming certain tenses, to have 
been recognised by the old grammarians, though it has been over- 
looked by the majority of modern grammarians. (15) Verbs, as 
we have already observed, generally express action, and all actions, 
and beinff also (that is all conceptions asserted by verbs), may come 
to be spoken of either first, as progressive (that is, going on), or 
incomplete at any i\viiQ past, present oy future, or, secondly, as com- 
pleted at a present or past time, or to be completed at a future time. 
(16) This element we may call the condition of the action as com- 
pleted or perfected, or, on the contrary, incomplete and progressive. 
(IV) Now to express distinctly all the varieties of modification oc- 
casioned by the union of these elements — the complete and incom- 
plete condition of the action expressed by the verb, with the element 
of time, we should require ten separate forms. 

(18) We should require, 1st, A form to express an assertion indefi- 
nitely — without reference either to the time, or the condition of the 
action asserted. 

(19) 2d. A form to express an assertion that has reference to the 
present time alone, without indicating either the complete or incom- 
plete condition of the action. 

(20) 3d. A form to express an assertion that has reference simply 
to the_^«s^, without indicating whether the action is completed or not 
completed. 

(21) 4th. A form to express an assertion that has reference, in 
like manner, simply to future time — the time to come. 



were indicated by tense forms, how many tenses should such languages have at most ? (12) 
How many forms called tenses have some of these languages ? (13) Tell the reason of this. 

(14) What leads us to suppose that this fact was recognised by the ancient grammarians? 

(15) Describe the different manners in which the action of verbs may come to be spoken 
of (16) How may the element described as connected sometimes with the action of verbs 
be called ? (17) To express fully the various combinations of the two elements of the time 
and the condition of the action of the verb, how many separate forms are required? (18> 
Describe form 1st. (19) Form 2d, (20) Form 8rd. (21) Form 4th. (22) Forms 5th, 



90 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 49. 

Forms to express assertions in reference to 

(22) 5tli, Present time, ^ 

6tli, Past time. > Action progressive. 
7th, Future time, j 

(23) 8tli, Present time. ] 

9th, Past time. > Action completed. 
10th, Future time. ) 

(24) In English we express only two of the above modifications 
of the sense of the verb, by means of the root and inflexion, mthout 
the help of other words. Or, to express the same thing otherwise, 
we have only two simple tense forms in our language ; and it is 
doubtful, as we shall see, whether one of these two can properly be 
called a tense.] 

§ 49. (1) We call those simple texses which consist either of 
the root of the verb alone, or of the root after undergoing some modi- 
fication of its form. (2) When any modification of the time or of 
the condition of the action asserted by a verb is expressed by the help 
of other words, we call this combination a compound, tense. We 
shall first consider the simple tenses.* 

(3) We use the simple root of the verb, subject to certain modi- 
fications to indicate the person of the subject (§ 52), to express an 
assertion without reference either to the time or the condition of the 
action. Examples : / write, he writes, the man thinks, &c. (4) 
This may be called the indefinite form of the verb — indefinite, we 
mean, as relates both to time and to progressive or completed action. 
(5) For the sake of uniformity, we shall call this the indefinite 
TENSE.f [(6) This form has been generally, but improperly, as we 



* It may admit a doubt whether what we have called the compound 
tenses should be considered as proper tense forms of the respective verbs to 
which they are assigned in our grammars. 

f This name, we admit, is not strictly proper, for this form of the verb 
is really no tense, because it does not indicate time. "We may here observe, 



6th, and 7th. (23) 'Forms, Sth, 9th, and 10th. (24) How many of these modifications of tlie 
sense of the verb do we express in English by modified forms of the root?] 
§ 49. (1) What are called simple tenses f (2) What compound tenses f 
(3) What form is employed to express an assertion without reference either to the time 
or to the condition of the action? (4) Wha.t may this form be called? (5) What name is 
adopted for the sake ofiuiiformity? [(G) Vt'hy has this form been called I'he prese7it tense? 



§ 49.] INDEFINITE TENSE. 91 

think, called the present tense of English verbs, because it is very 
commonly used in assertions that have reference to present existing 
events or facts (V), but it certainly does not indicate any necessary 
connection with the present or any other time. (8) This form is 
employed in asserting all general truths — truths which exist inde- 
pendent of all time; as, God is eternal; Truth is unchangeable ; 
A triangle has three sides and three angles; and all mathema- 
tical and physical truths that are of an immutable nature. (9) 
It is, in fact, used precisely for the purpose described above, under 
form 1st ; namely, to assert all kinds of action and existence, when 
we do not intend to limit the action definitely to either past, present, 
or future, nor to indicate whether it is completed or pi-ogressive. 
(10) So far is this form from being confined to the assertion of 
actions or states of being connected with present time, that it is 
often employed to express what is manifestly past or manifestly 
future ; as, Plato thinks profoundly, Cicero writes with great ele- 
gance. (11) Here the actions asserted are past. John writes to 
his father next Saturday. He goes to toivn to-morrow. Here the 
action is future. (12) Now, although neither the past existenc^e of 

that the more philosophical grammarians have applied the terms definite and 
indefinite very vaguely to tenses. They are not even agreed which tenses 
are definite and which indefinite. Some call the past tense definite end the 
perfect indefinite ; others, on the contrary, call the past tense indefinite and 
the perfect definite. This disagreement has arisen from confounding the two 
distinct elements or modifications indicated by the forms called tenses; 
namely, time and the condition of the predicate as completed or incomplete. 
A reference to this, and to the fact that no tense ever expresses a definite 
point of time, would at once have settled the controversy. When the past 
tense is called definite, it is meant that it expresses that which is definitely 
past. When the perfect is called definite, it is meant that it expresses what 
is definitely completed, not Avhat is definitely past. The name imperfect, most 
improperly given to the past tense, seems to have led to the error of calling 
it indefinite. It certainly expresses the past definitely. We have nothing 
to do with this dispute, as we see no use in applying this term either to the 
past or the perfect tense. We apply it only to the tense before us, and only 



(7) State the objection. (8) For what is this form said to he employed ? Give the exam- 
ples. (9) Describe the precise purpose for which this form is employed. (10) What is 
said to show that this form is not confined to the expression of present actions ? (11) Illus- 
trate by examples. (12) State the conclusion drawn from such examples, &c. 



92 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 50. 

the actions in the one case, nor the future existence in the other is 
indicated by the verb, but either left to be inferred from the nature 
of the subject matter, or rendered manifest by the accompanying 
words expressive of time ; yet, if it Avere the proper and inherent 
function of this form to assert present time (that is, if it were, as 
most grammarians teach, a present tense) ^ it could never be em- 
ployed in this manner. 

(13) Again, on the other hand, we cannot employ this form to 
express, in an explicit manner, that an agent actually performs an 
action in the present time. (14) For this purpose we must have 
recourse to a different form of expression. (15) If I am asked what 
John actually does at present, I do not answer. He lorites, but Se 
is writing. For the explanation of this form of exj)ression, see 
§ 62)*]. 

§ 50. (1) "We employ in English a modified form of the roots 
of our verbs to express an assertion that has reference simply to 
the PAST, without indicating whether the action was progi-essive or 
completed at the past time referred to. (2) Examples : The hoy 

in the sense indicated, namely, indefinite as to both time and the state of 
the action. 

* It may be added, in confirmation of the views expressed above, that 
in the Anglo-Saxon, the basis of the present Enghsh, there is nothing except 
this indefinite form to express future action. Whether an assertion in that 
language is indefinite as to time, or present, or future, is not to be learned 
fi'om the form of the verb, but by some other means — from the nature of the 
assertion, the connection of the discourse, or modifying words added to indi- 
cate time. For proof of this the inquisitive reader is referred to satisfactory 
examples in the following passages of the Anglo-Saxon ti'anslation of the 
Gospels:— Matt. 25: 46. Luke 13: verses 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30. In 
all these places (and we might add an indefinite number of similar examples) 
the Greek future (or perhaps the Latin future, for the translation appears to 
have been made from a Latin version) is invariably rendered by the Anglo- 
Saxon indefinite form — the form from which our indefinite form (incorrectly 
called the present tense) has manifestly descended, and which it, to a large 
extent, represents. — See Eemarks, § 48. 



(13) Can -sve by this form express action in the present explicitly? (14) How do we ex- 
press such action ? (15) Give an example.] 

§ 50. (1) Describe the purpose for which we employ a modified, form of the roots of our 
verbs, (2) Give examples, and tell what the form of the verb employed indicates. [(3) 



§ 50.] PAST TENSE. 93 

wrote yesterday ; The man thought differently ; Thepoet lived in the 
country. In these expressions it is simply indicated hy the form of 
the verb employed, that the action asserted is past. [(3) The ac- 
tion may have been in progress or completed ; and owing to the 
nature of the action^ we may be able from such an assertion to in- 
fer its condition, whether progressive or completed at the time past; 
but this condition in such cases is only inferred ; it is not indicated 
hy the form of the expression. (4) This is the only tense properly 
so called ; that is, expressed in English by a modification effected 
on the root or original form of the verb without other auxiliary 
words. (5) What we have^ called the indefinite tense, is expressed 
by the unchanged root of the verb ; and, as regards indication of 
time, is properly no tense. Or, if we employ tense as a grammati- 
cal term for a particular form of the verb, this might be called tense 
no tense — the tense that excludes the element of time.] 

(6) The tense formed by a modification of the root of the verb, 
and which expresses simply past time, we shall call the past tense, 
or preterit tense ; and verbs of this form preterits. [ (7) 
This form has been very commonly, but very improperly, called in 
our grammars the imperfect tense. (8) Except that it is used to ex- 
press what was customary or habitual in past time, it has nothing 
in common with what is called the imperfect tense in other lan- 
guages.] 

Note. — We might object, not without reason, to the name imperfect tense, 
that strictly speaking it involves an absurdity, mxce perfect, or imperfect cfm.- 
not, with propriety, be asserted of time, or attributed to time, that is, to tense 
{temps, tempus) in its original signification. The absurdity will appear, if we 
propose the questions, what do you mean by imperfect time ? What kind of 
time is imperfect, or perfect time ? It will not do for the grammarian who 
calls the tense under consideration the imperfect, to attempt to rid himself of 
this absurdity, by saying thsii perfect time vae2in% finished ivone, and imper- 
fect time unfinished time ; because, unfortunately for him, it is what is called 
the perfect tense in our own, and in other languages, and not the imperfect 



When this tense is used, may we sometimes infer the condition of the action ? And how 
may we infer it? (4) State what is rem Arlced in regard of this tense. (5) What is here said 
of the indefinite tense .?] 

(6) What name is given to the tense formed by a modification of the root of the verb ? 
[(7) By -what name has this tense been improperly called ? (8) Has this tense anything 
in common (in regard to its nse) with the imperfect tense in other languages? 



94 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 60. 

tense, which is used exclusively in asserting actions performed in a period of 
time not yet fuUj elapsed or finished. We say, John has written a letter this 
day, this week, this yeo.r, to his father, employing the (so called) perfect tense 
for the yery reason (as grammarians uniyersally admit) that the period of 
time referred to — the day, the week, the year, is yet present, and not finished. 
On the conti-ary, if the assertion referred to yesterday, last week, last year — a 
period of time completely past and finished, we must employ what has been 
improperly called the imperfect tense ; John wrote a letter yesterday, &c. 
Our objection to imperfect employed as an attribute of time, obviously ap- 
plies equally to perfect and to pluperfect, which last is, independently of this 
objection, an absurd and barbarous term. 

But we waive the objection now stated to the use of the terms perfect and 
imperfect tense deduced from the proper etymological meaning of the word 
tense, though we do not see how those, who exjDlain all the tense forms found 
in the verbs of all languages, as used "to mark time more precisely," can 
get over this objection. With our views of the fimctions of tense forms, 
we can get over it readily, and without inconsistency, and shall use (one if 
not both) the terms perfect and imperfect, for the convenience of being more 
readily understood, and to avoid as much as possible unnecessary innovation 
by the introduction of new terms. Still, we shall employ these terms, un- 
like the great mass of English grammarians, in a manner consistent with the 
views presented above ; that is, with recognition of the fact, that two distinct 
modifications are expressed by what are called tense forms ; in other words, 
that the term tense has, in grammatical usage, lost its esclusive, special, and 
etymological reference to time, and is now employed as the name of cer- 
tain forms of the verb, which indicate sometimes time alone, sometimes 
time in combination with the conditio?i of the action as completed, or 
remaining incomplete and progressive, and sometimes, as in the case of the 
English indefinite tense (or indefinite/on«), indicative of the absence of restric- 
tion from either modification. And, as to the terms perfect and imperfect, 
when we come to use them, we shall consider them, as the grammarians who 
first introduced them seem to have done, as referring exclusively to the con- 
dition (as above described), not to the time of the action ; perfect {jperfectum, 
done, accoonplished, ivllj finished), being applied to forms which express com- 
pleted action, and imperfect (imperfectum) to forms which express incom- 
plete or progressive action. 

In conformity with these views, and in accordance with the practice of 
some recent grammarians, we reject the name imperfect tense, as altogether 
inappropriate to what we have called above the past tense, since it is no 
part of the function of this tense to give any indication whatever of the con- 
dition of the action expressed by the verb. In fact, it is most generally used 
in speaking of that which is completed (perfectum) ; but this is not neces- 
sarily indicated, nor intended to be indicated by the form. It is inferred 
from the nature of the action, combined with the fact that it is past ; or, 



§ 50.] PAST TENSE. 95 

Bometimes, from accompanying words limiting the action to a specified time 
past; examples: Noah built mi ark; John wrote a letter yesterday. On the 
contrary, in the example, " The village master taught his little school" we 
have an action expressed that was incornplete — progressive at the past time 
referred to. But this fact, again, we learn by inference, not by any thing 
distinctly indicated by the past form of the yerb. We shall see hereafter 
the propriety of carefully distinguishing, what is explicitly indicated by a 
grammatical form, from that which may, in some cases, be inferred from 
what it indicates, either alone, or combined with other modifying or com- 
pleting words. 

There is another very strong objection to the employment of the name 
imperfect tense, in designating the form of the verb now under consideration. 
And this is, that this improper appellation occasions much confusion of 
thought, and consequent embarrassment to young learners, when, after hav- 
ing studied the grammar of their own language, they begin to acquire a 
knowledge of any of the ancient or modern languages of southern Europe. 
In these they find an imperfect tense, which, unlike what most of our gram- 
mars call the imperfect tense in English, does really indicate, according to 
its name, imperfect, or unfinished action (that is, action unfinished at the 
past time intended to be indicated), and which, the young scholar finds, can- 
not, generally, be properly translated by what he has been taught to call the 
English imperfect tense. On the contrary, he has to be taught that, in writ- 
ing these languages, oiir past tense (which he has been allowed to call the im- 
perfect) can seldom be represented by their imperfect tense. In assei'ting a 
past action that was customary, habitual, oft repeated, or a continuous state 
of being, and therefore not definitely, and, once for all completed, the an- 
cient and modern languages referred to properly employ their imperfect 
tense. In such assertions we loosely employ our past {improperly called im- 
perfect) tense. In such assertions as, The poet lived in the country, " The 
village master taught his litle school," the imperfect would be employed in 
those languages, and not the tenses to which our past tense is generally equi- 
valent. It is rarely, except in the case now mentioned, that our past tense 
can, with propriety, be rendered by the imperfects of other languages. 

This employment of our past tense to express what;, in other languages is 
expressed more appropriately by their imperfect, has naturally arisen fi'om 
the poverty of our language in simple tense forms. Having only one simple 
form to express past time, it was natural, that it should be used for every 
assertion relating to past time, which did not absolutely require more definite 
modification. In fact, we cannot express the distinction noticed above between 
a single past occurrence, and customary action, or continuous being, even 
with the help of our compound tenses. The compound tense, expressive of 
past progressive action, which usually represents the imperfect of other lan- 
guages, cannot be properly used here. We must either leave the fact of cus- 
tomary action to be inferred from the nature of the action, as we generally 



96 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§51- 

do, "wliere more precision is unnecessaiy, or employ a less concise form of 
expression ; as, for example, The poet was in the habit of living in the coun- 
try; "The village master" icas accustomed to teach "his little school," in- 
stead of the more usual mode of expressing these assertions employed 
above. 

In connection with this we may remark, that, the form under considera- 
tion being our great tense (our only simple tense) form for past time, it some- 
times happens (as it does also in reference to the correspondent tense in other 
languages) that assertions which might be expressed with more precision by 
some of those combinations called covipound tenses, are often expressed by 
this tense, when the further modification given by the compound tense is not 
important to the sense. This may account for, and, perhaps, justify such as- 
sertions as, "/was this morning with the secretary,''^ I wrote this morning, 
(fee, instead of, I have been this morning with the secretary, (fee. 

§ 51. Formation of the Past Tense.— We now come to ex- 
plain the formation of the simple tenses. (1) And here our task 
is confined to a statement of the modifications which the root un- 
dergoes to express past time, since, as we have already remarked 
(§ 49 : 3), the indefinite tense is the root itself — the simplest form 
of the verb. 

(2) The past tense of English verbs is formed from the root in 
two distinct ways (already noticed, § 35 : 2), by infiexion, and by a 
radical modification. (3) The learner will remember that inflexion 
is the name given when some addition by way of termination is 
made to the root, and that radical modification is the name given 
when a change is efi'ected in the vowel sound of the root, or origi- 
nal word. (4) We have examples of the formation of the past 
tense by inflexion in the following verbs ; act, past tense acted ; talk, 
talked ; call, called ; paint, painted, &c. And of the formation by 
a radical modification in write, past tense, wrote ; see, saw ; speak, 
spoke ; give, gave, &c., &c. 

(5) The past tense of the greatest part of our verbs is formed by 
inflexion. (6) This inflexion consists of the addition (in the pres- 
ent spoken language) of the sound of d, or ed, or, sometimes, t to 
the root of the verb. (The causes, which determine whether the d, 

§ 51. (1) To what is our task confined in explaining tlie formation of the simple tenses, 
and why is it so confined? (2) In how many ways is the past tense formed from the root 
of the verb ? (3) Kepeat what is said of inflection and radical modification. (4) Illustrate 
by examples. 

(5) How is the past tense of the greatest part of English verbs formed ? (6) What ad- 



§ 51.] PAST TENSE. FORMATION. 97 

or the t sound must be added in any particular case are described 
in § 40 and 41.) (V) In the written language, when the root of 
the verb happens to end in e,* we add the letter c?, and when the 
root has any other ending we add ed to form the past tense. (8) 
Thus the past tense of this whole class in the written language 
ends in ed^ except a few which have undergone contraction ; such as 
leapt, contracted from leaped ; knelt, from kneeled ; wept, from weeped ; 
spelt, from spelled, &c. 

[(9) This termination {ed) was, no doubt, universally pronounced 
fully, so as to form a complete additional syllable in the spoken 
language of our early ancestors. (10) It is still sometimes fully 
pronounced in reading the sacred Scriptures and on solemn occa- 
sions ; but both in the language of conversation, and in ordinary 
reading and public speaking the vowel sound is suppressed, and the 
d sound alone attached to the root, wherever this is possible. (11) 
It is not possible (see § 41), when the root ends in a d, or a t sound ; 

* We doubt whether it is altogether proper to consider the final e in such 
verbs as love, write, <fec., as a part of the root. The roots of these verbs are 
properly lov and writ, and the e is a fragment of the original personal termi- 
nation retained, in order, perhaps, to indicate (as it does in most cases) that 
the long sound is to be given to the radical vowel. The final e in such 
words as hate, revere, write, move, fume, &c., shows the reader how he is to 
pronounce the radical vowels, viz., with the long sound of each vowel re- 
spectively. There are some exceptions, as in the words have and love, as 
they are now pronounced. On the other hand, the final mute e is retained 
in many words, where it is altogether unnecessary for the purpose above 
mentioned ; for example, in such words as perceive, receive, rejoice, (fee., where 
the diphthong sufficiently indicates that a long sound is to be given to the 
radical syllable. But these are only small samples of the great want of 
consistency in the mode of representing our spoken signs which has become 
established in our written language — or, in other words, small samples of 
our anomalous orthography — anomalous, we mean, in reference to the pres- 
ent spoken language. 

In reference to the final e mute of our verbs, it is altogether unnecessary, 



dition is made to the root of the verb in the spoken language to form the past tense ? (7) 
Describe what is done in the written language. (8) What is the ending of the past tense of 
this whole class of verbs in the written language? Mention exceptions. 

[(9) What is said about the pronunciation of the termination ed in ancient times ? (10) 
What is the modern custom in reference to the pronunciation of this final edf (11) What 
must be done when the root ends in a d, or a t sound ? Illustrate by examples.] 



98 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 51. 

and in sucli cases we add in speaMng tlie full sound represented by 
the ed. to the root ; as, for example, in the verbs end, past tense, 
ended ; add, added ; act, acted ; <tc.] 

(12) Verbs forming their ^:»as;^ tense in this manner, we may 
hereafter caU verbs of the modern class or modern conjugation. 

(13) Those verbs which form their past tense by means of a 
radical modification, are commonly (but, we think, improperly) 
called irregular verbs, because it has been found difficult to detect 
any general law governing the changes to which their roots are 
subjected. (14) "We may caU them verbs of the ancient on primi- 
tive conjugation. [(15) Some have called this the strong conjuga- 
tion, or the strong order of verbs, and what we have called the 
modern conjugation, the weak conjugation or order. 

(16) The verbs w-hich belong to the ancient conjugation are not 
so numerous as those which belong to the modern conjugation, but 
they constitute perhaps the most ancient part of the language, 
and many of them are more used for the ordinary purposes of 
speech, than any other verbs. (IT) This method of formation has 
been long obsolete — obsolete even in the Anglo-Saxon times. (18) 
The modern method of formation is the current one — the only one 
which for many centuries has be«n employed in the case of verbs 
newly adopted into the language. Xo new past tense would now 
be formed by a radical modification. On the contrary, a tendency 
to extend the modern formation to verbs which belong to the an- 
cient conjugation, is observable in the usage of oiu- language ; for 
example in substituting the modern form digged for the ancient 
past tense dug of the verb to dig ; hanged, shined, strived, iceaved, 
&c., for the ancient iorms, hung, shone, strove, wove, <fcc. (20) Still 

for the purposea of the grammarian, to trouble the learner Tvith any distinc- 
tion between verbs which have it, and those "^hich have it not If it be 
a fi'agment of a personal termination, it now serves no flexional purpose 
in the lansruaoje — it indicates no modification of sense whatever. 



(12) By what name do we distinguish verbs which form the past tense in this manner ? 

(13) What name is generally given to verbs which form the past tense by a radical modi- 
fication ? (14) How do we name them? [(15) What other name has been given to them ? 

(16) What is said of the verbs of the ancient conjugation? (17) Eepeat the remark in 
reference to the ancient method of formation. (IS) Eepeat the remarks m reference to tbe 
modern method of formation. (19) What tendency in reference to this matter is observed 



§ 52.] PERSONAL TERMINATIONS. 99 

many of the past tenses of the ancient formation have obtained 
such fast hold in general usage, that this tendency in favor of the 
modern and current formation has not in centuries been able to su- 
persede them, nor is it likely to be able to supersede them all for 
ages to come.]"^ 

(21) The verb to he may be considered irregular or rather de- 
fective, being made up apparently of fragments of several ancient 
verbs, "each of which is defective in several of its parts. The 
parts, however, that are wanting in one verb, are made up by the 
inflexions of one of the others." f (22) The same may be said 
of the verb to go. 

Eemaek. — We shall give at the close of this chapter an alphabeti- 
cal list of all the verbs which do not form their preterits by the addi- 
tion of eel or d^ including all the verbs of the ancient conjugation, and 
such verbs of the modern conjugation as by contraction or otherwise 
have come to assume an apparently irregular form, together with the 
few really irregular or defective verbs. 

Exercises I,, II., &c. — Form propositions with verbs of the past 
tense, 

§ 52. Of Modified Forms of the Verb employed to indi- 
cate THE Number and Person of the Subject. — [(1) Some lan- 

* In the lapse of ages, however, the modei'n formation has made great 
encroachments on the domain of the ancient or strong conjugation. A very 
considerable number of verbs which in Anglo-Saxon had preterits of the an- 
cient or strong form, have in our present language preterits of the inodern or 
weak form. — (See a list of these in Latham's English Language, p. 340, 2d ed.) 

f See Latham's Eng. Language, 2d ed., chapters 26th and 28th, for some 
judicious remarks on the distinction between irregularity and defectiveness, 
and the impropriety of classing all verbs which do not form their preterits 
in ed or d as irregular. See also in the last mentioned chapter a useful dis- 
tinction drawn between vital (what we have called above current), and obso- 
lete processes of formation. The ancient process by which strong prete- 
rits were formed is obsolete ; the modern process of adding the d sound {ed 
or d in the written language) is the vital process — the one in actual use. So 
the vital process of forming plurals of nouns is by adding s, &c., to the sin- 
gular form. The process of adding en, as in the case of ox plural .oxen, or 
changing the vowel sound as in rman men, is obsolete. 

in our language? Illustrate by examples. (20) Are preterits of the ancient formation 
likely to be entirely superseded?] 

(21) What is said in reference to the verb to te ? (22) What of the verb to go ? 

§52. [(1) How many distinct forms in each tense are employed in some lan.2;ua2;ps to in- 



100 STRUCTUEE OF LAXGUAGE. [§ 52. 

guages — the Latin, for example — have six distinct forms in each 
tense to indicate each of the three persons singular, and the three 
persons plural. (2) Many other languages retain a less or more 
complete set of forms of this kind ; in some languages, these forms 
are so incomplete as to be of little or no practical serdce. 

Note.— In those languages which possess a distinct termination to express 
each person singular and plural, the subject noun of the first and second per- 
sons, both singular and plural, can always be suppressed without occasioning 
obscurity, and, generally, whenever the subject of the third persons singu- 
lar and plural may be represented by a pronoun, the pronoun can be sup- 
pressed. Let us take, for example, the present tense indicative of the Latin 
verb stare, to stand; sto, stas, staf, stojnus, statis, stant. Sto, being invariably 
and exclusively employed to express the action of standing, predicated of the 
first person, as clearly indicates the subject noun as if it were preceded by 
ego=I, since nothing but this can serve as subject to this form of the verb. 
Stas indicates its subject with equal clearness. Stat, also, indicates with cer- 
tainty that something of the third person singular must be the subject ; and 
whenever the reference is so clear that a pronoun may represent the subject, 
and that the expression of gender can add nothing to this clearness, stai alone 
will serve to express both subject and verb, (In this way, a single word 
comes in some languages to express a complete proposition.) The same may 
be repeated in reference to the plui^al terminations. The suppression of the 
pronouns is very generally practised in those languages which have a com- 
plete set of personal terminations, such as the Latin, Greek, Spanish, Itahan. 
The power of doing this is a considerable advantage in point of style. In 
languages that have not a complete set of these terminations, the few which 
they retain seem to be of no use whatever. "WTiere we must always use the 
pronoun to escape ambiguity, the personal terminations serve no purpose 
that we can discover. They seem to be of no use in the present English. 
This may account for the fact that they have nearly all disappeared. We 
once had more of them, as will be seen in what follows. At a remote period 
oui' language, or rather the languages from which it is descended, had, likely, 
complete sets of personal terminations, and could suppress the subject when 
a pronoun in the same manner as the Latin or modern Spanish. The 
Gothic, as it is found in Ulphilas' version of the Xew Testament, agrees in 
this respect with the Greek and Latin. It has personal terminations as com- 
plete as they have, and even dual persons like the Greek, and admits similar 
suppression of pronouns. Indeed, it is probable that personal terminations 
had precedence, in the date of their origin in language, to personal pronouns. 
That is to say, that such forms as sto (I stand), had existence before words 
were invented to express the elements I and stand separately. 

dicat« the nurriber and _pe/'sa?i of the subject ? (2) What is said of other languages in re- 



§ 52.] PERSONAL TERMINATIONS. 101 

It may here be remarked, that though in the written French there are 
separate terminations for most of the persons, yet, because the spoken lan- 
guage confounds in pronunciation many of the persons which are written 
differently, in using French, we have always, as in English, to repeat the 
pronominal subjects before the verbs. The apparatus of personal termina- 
tions serves no practical purpose in that language. When the (subject) pro- 
nouns must be used, they secure a degree of perspicuity, to which the use of 
personal terminations can make no addition. 

(3) In tlie earlier stages of the English language, these personal 
terminations were more numerous than at the present time. (4) A 
form distinct from all the singular persons was used for the three 
persons plural, in both the indefinite tense and the past tense. (5) 
This form was made by adding the termination en to the root of the 
verb, or n only when the root ended in e ; as, for example, We 
dwellen, You dwellen, They dwellen^ where we now say. We dwell, 
&c. We wenten, where we say, We went ; " Peter and John wenten 
up into the templet (Acts 3:1; Wiclif's translation.) (6) This 
plural form seems to have been generally employed in the age of 
Wiclif and Chaucer. It was not yet completely obselete in the 
times of Spenser, since he occasionally employs it.*] 

(7) At present, there remains in our language no distinctive ter- 
mination for the plural of any of our verbs, except the verb to he. 
(8) This verb has a plural form in the past tense, We were, Ye ivere, 



* Another form of the plural of the indefinite tense is found in writings 
as late as the end of the fourteenth century, that is, as late as Chaucer and 
Wiclif. This form ends in eth, which differs little from the Anglo-Saxon plu- 
ral termination of the indefinite tense ath. We give the following examples 
from a sentence of Trevisa, as quoted by Mr. Tyrwhitt, in his " Essay on 
the Language and Yersification of Chaucer": "In alle the gramer scoles 
of Englond children leveth Frenche, and construeth and lerneth an Eng- 
lish, and haveth thereby," &c. There are many other examples of this 
form in the same piece. (Chaucer, Ed. E. Moxon, Lond., 184Y. Essay, 
p. xxii., n. 21.) 



ference to these forms ? (3) "What remai^ is made in reference to the earlier stages of our 
language ? (4) Illustrate this remark. (5) How was the ancient plural of verbs formed? 
Give examples. (6) To what period did this form continue in use ?] 

(7) Have we any plural form of our verbs in present use ? (8) "What is said of the past 
tense of the verb to le ? 



102 STRUCTURE OF LAy&UAGE. [§52. 

TJieij were ; anciently, and down till tlie times of Spenser, We weren^ 
Ye weren, <fec. 

(9) This verb has also cqjijarently a plural form in the indefinite 
tense, We are^ Ye are, etc. But it may be doubted ^vhether this 
is really a plural form, or only the unmodified root from which the 
singular forms ara and art are made. (10) Whether intended 
originally for the purpose or not, this form now serves to distinguish 
the plural of this verb, being difierent from all the singular personal 
forms. 

(11) As to personal terminations, there is no distinction what- 
ever of form between the three persons plural in any tense of any 
of our verbs. (12) In the English of the present day, the root (or 
radical form) of the verb withotit change is used for the first person 
singular, and for all the three plural persons of the indefinite tense. 
(13) For example, these persons of the verb to call, are, 1st person 
singular, I call ; plural persons, 1st, We call, 2d, You, call, 3d, 
They call, ot Men, (tc, call. (14) The only exception occurs in 
the forms of the verb to he, in which the 1st person singular differs 
from the plural persons : 1st person singular, I am ; plural persons, 

We are. You are, Tliei/ are. 

(15) The simple form of the past tense (already described) is 
used for the 1st and 3d persons singular, and for all the plural per- 
sons ; as, 1st person, I called, 3d pei*son, .Se, She, It, The man, <fec., 
called ; plural 1st pers., We called, 2d, You or ye called, 3d, They, 
Men, (fee, called. (16) The only exception to this again occurs in 
the past tense of the verb to be, in which loas is the form for the 
1st and 3d persons singular, and luere for the plural persons : 1st 
person singular, I was, 3d, ^e, (fcc, was; plural 1st, We were, 2d, 

You or ye luere, 3d, They, (fcc, were. 

(17) The second person of both tenses, indefinite and past, is 
formed by adding the termination 8t — to the root for the indefinite, 

(9) What is said of the indefinite tense of the verb to te in reference to a plnral form ? 
(10) What is said of the purpose -which the form are actually serves, -R-hether originally in- 
tended, or not ? 

(11) Mention the general remark ahout personal terminations. (12) What persons does 
the root of the verb express in the indefinite tense? (13) Give example. (14) State ex- 
ception. 

(15) What persons singular and plural are expressed by the simple past form ? (16) 
Mention an exception, and give fuU explanation. 



§ 62.] PERSONAL TERMINATIONS. 103 

to the past form for the past tense — when this can readily coalesce 
with the root or past form respectively ; when it cannot, est is added. 
(18) Examples: 2d person, indefinite tense. Thou callEST, Thou 
mov^EST, &c. ; 2d person, past tense, " Thou caliedsT us not when 
thou wentEST^^ (Judges 8:1). (19) Remark: These second per- 
sons singular, of both tenses, are now rarely used, except in the 
solemn style (§ 30). 

(20) The third person singular of the indefinite tense is formed 
in two ways : 1st, by adding the sound represented by eth to the 
root — in the written language, by adding the letters eth to the root, 
or th only when the root ends in e, mute ; 2d, by adding an s or z 
sound to the root — in the written language, by adding the letter s. 

(21) Examples: He callETn, or He calls ; He moveTU, ov He moves. 

(22) The form in eth is rarely used at present, except in the solemn 
style ; but it was very generally employed by many of the best 
writers (especially by Scottish writers) of the last century. (23) 
Remark : The form in s being made in the same way as the plural 
form of nouns, is subject to many of the same rules of formation. 
(24) For example; when the root of the verb ends in an s sound, 
we add es, sounded ez ; as, / miss, He missES ; She blushEs ; He 
marchES, &c. When the verb ends in o we add es ; as. He goES, 
He doES, &c. And, when the verb ends in y, preceded by a conso- 
nant, in the written language, we change the y into i and add es ; 
as. He cries, from cry ; It Jlies, 3d person of the verb to Jly. (25) 
Whether an s or a s sound is to be added to a verb to form the 
third person, is determined by the same principles referred to in treat- 
ing of the formation of the plural of nouns. (See § 41 and § 42.) 

The following are exceptions to the rules now given for the 
formation of the 2d and 3d persons singular of verbs. (26) The 
verb have has for its 2d and 3d persons the forms hasT and Aarn or 
has, evidently contractions for havesT and havcTH. or haves. (27) 



(17) How is the second person of both the indefinite and past tense formed? (18) Give 
examples. (19) Repeat the remark. 

(20) How is the third person singular of the indefinite tense formed ? 

(21) Give examples. (22) Repeat the observation in reference to the form in eth. ' (23) 
Repeat the remark in reference to the form in s. (24) Illustrate this remark by examples 
of verbs ending 1st in an s sound ; 2d in o, and 3d in y, preceded by a consonant. (25) Re- 
peat what is said about determining whether an s, or a z sound shall be added to form the 
3d person. (26) What is said of the 2d and 3d persons singular of the verb ha/ce ? (27) 



104 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 52. 

Will (used as an auxiliary to indicate futurity) and shall form the 
second person singular by adding the sound of t instead of st to the 
root. In writing them we drop one I ; as, Thou shah go, Thou 
wih go. (28) Will (auxiHary), shall, may, can, must, and (generally) 
dare (=to have courage, and followed by the infinitive or verbal), 
take no addition to the root in the thhd person singular ; as, He will 
come ; He shall, may, can, must, dare go.'^ 

We have now, we believe, noticed all the changes of form which 
English verbs, in the present state of the language (and for some 
centuries backward) exhibit. We except a few forms of the verb 
to he, omitted because they can be best learned from the table below, 
in which all the variations of this verb — or rather the fragments of 
several verbs, employed to assert being — are presented. 

The essential part of the formation of the persons (all that can- 
not be learnt from the tables of the tenses to be presently given) 
may be summed up briefly as follows : 

(29) The second persons singular of both tenses are formed by 
adding st or est to the root and to the^as^ tense form respectively; 
and the third person singular of the indefinite tense is formed by 
adding an 5 to the 7'oot, In the other persons of the indefinite tense 
the unmodified o^oot is employed ; and, in the other persons of the 
past tense, the past tense form, without further modification, is em- 
ployed. 

(30) Remark : The formation of the third person singular of the 



* "When will is used in its original sense, to express determination, reso- 
lution, purpose of mind, or volition, sometimes the second, and generally the 
third, person is regularly formed. Examples of the second person of will 
thus used and regularly formed are rare. Lowth has produced two from 
one of Atterbury's sermons. (Intr. to Eng. Gram. p. 70. Lond. 1'788.) Exam- 
ples of wilt, used in the original sense of will, are found in the l^ew Testa- 
ment. Examples of the third person regularly formed are easily found. 
"It is not of him that will:ETB." (Rom. 9 : 16.) "Because he can walk if he 
wills." (Locke, as cited by Webster. Diet, sub voce.) i)are = to challenge, 
followed by a noun, we believe, always takes the regular termination of the 
third person; as. He dares the enemy to fight = he, challenges the enemy. 

What of the 2d persons of the verbs ^cill and shall ? (28) What of the 3d persons of will, 
(auxiliary,) shall, may, can, must, and dare ? 

(29) Eepeat the summary account of the formation of the persons. (30) Eepeat the re- 
mark. 



§ 53.] OF PARTICIPLES. 105 

indefinite tense merits the chief attention. The second persons sin- 
gular of either tense come rarely into use. 

§ 53. (1) We may here notice the formation of the two verbal 
adjectives, commonly called participles, which, we shall presently find, 
are employed in forming some of the compound tenses. (2) One of 
^hese verbals ends in ing. In the usage of the language at the 
present day (and for several centuries past), it always corresponds 
exactly in form with the verbal substantive in ing, already consid- 
ered. (See § 27.) (3) It is formed by adding ing to the root of 
the verb ; as, from call is formed callnsiG. (4) When the verb, in 
the written language, ends in e mute, the e is rejected ; as, for ex- 
ample, from move, rejecting e, is formed moviisGr. (5) When an i 
precedes the e mute, the i is changed into y, the e rejected, and ing 
added ; as, for example, die, dgi^a ; lie, IgiNG.^ 

(6) This form is most commonly called the present — ^but by 
some more properly the Imperfect Participle. (T) It expresses 
the action of the verb in an imperfect, unfinished, or progressive 
condition, not assertively, like the verb properly so called, but at- 
tributively ; that is, in the form suited to be employed as an at- 
tribute of a noun, or as the complement of a predicate. (8) By the 
fact that it always performs attributive functions, it is readily dis- 
tinguished from the verbal noun in ing, which is always employed 
to perform some function of a substantive. 

* When a word of one syllable, or a word of more than one syllable ac- 
cented on the last syllable, ends in a single consonant preceded by a single 
vowel, we double the final consonant in forming the imperfect participle ; 
as, get, getting; stop, stopping; beset, besetting; compel, compelling; &c. 
The object of writing these, and other formations from words ending in this 
manner, is to indicate that the short sound of the last syllable of the root is 
to be retained in the word when the inflexion is added. If we wrote sloping 
it might appear that we intended the o to be sounded long, as in no, instead 
of short, as in 7iot. This, as well as the remark about verbs ending in e mute, 
applies only to the written, not to the spoken language. As regards the 
spoken language, the sound of ing is added to every verb root (without ex- 
ception) to form the imperfect participle. 

§ 53. (1) "What is said of verbal adjectives, or participles ? (2) What is said of the form 
of the first of these -yerSaZ adl^'ec^i-yes ? (3) How is this verbal formed ? (4) How formed 
when the verb ends in e mute ? (5) How when an i precedes the e mute ? 

(6) What is this form called ? (T) In what condition and in what manner does it i 
the action of the verb ? (S) IIow maj' it be distinguished from the verbal noun ? 



106 STRUCTURE OF LAN&UACxE. [§53. 

(9) The second verbal adjective, or participie m verbs of the 
modern conjugation corresponds in form with the past tense — that 
is, it always ends in ed, except in a few cases of contraction. (See 
§ 51.) (10) For example; call has for its past tense called, and 
for verbal adjective also called ; as '■ There icas a certain man 
in Caesarea called Cornelius, a centurion of the hand called 
Italianr (11) In the verbs of the ancient conjugation \his partici- 
ple has generally a form pecuhar to itself — distinct from the past 
tense form. (12) In the most remote times it seems to have been 
formed by adding the termination en sometimes to the root, some- 
times to ih.e past tense form. (13) Many of these participles in en 
still remain in the language, others have gradually become obsolete. 
(14) As examples of participles in en we may mention hroJcen, eaten, 
fornotten. laden, risen, written, (ire. (15) The form of lYa^ p)artici~ 
pie. as well as the form of the j'^c/sf tense in the verbs of the ancient 
corjugoAion^ is so various that the learner must in all doubtful cases 
be referred to the table of this class of verbs at the end of this 
chapter, in which we shall give the participles as well as the past 
tenses of each verb. 

(16) This verbal is appropriately called the perfect participle, as 
it expresses the action of the verb in a completed or perfect [per- 
fected) condition. Like the other participle it is always employed 
attributively.^ 



■^Some caU this verbal verj improperly the past participle; neither this, 
nor the participle in ing give any direct indication of the time of the action 
which they express ; they simply indicate the condition of the action — the 
imperfect participle, as tcnfinislied, or progressive, and the perfect participle, 
SiS finished, ov covipleted. Hence they are both employed in forming com- 
pound tenses — past, future, and indefinite as regards time. This proves suf- 
ficiently that the names present and past participles do not accurately ex- 
press the significance of these forms. The name passire, sometimes given to 
the perfect participle, is also improper for similar reasons. 



(9) What is said of the second verbal adjective ? (10) Give example. (11) 'What is 
said of the form of this participle in verbs of the ancient conjugation f (12) Hotv does it 
seem to have been formed in the most remote times ? (13) Do forms ending in en still re- 
main in the language ? (14) Give examples. (15) Eepeat the remark about the v^aj of 
ascertaining the form of these participles in verbs of the ancienf conjugation. 

(16) What name is given to this participle, and how is it employed ? 



§ 54.] OF MODES. 107 

§ 54. Of Modes. — (1) Of the modifications which we have 
considered, the tenses have reference to the predicate — to the action 
expressed by the verb. (2) For example, in the proposition, the 
hoy called his father, calling his father at a past time is asserted of 
the boy. The predicate calling, asserted without modification in 
the indefinite tense, is asserted in the past tense with a modification 
indicating that the action of caUing is past. (3) The modifications 
indicative of person and number have reference to the subject of 
the verb. 

(4) There is still another modification which has reference to 
the manner of predication, and the purpose for which a proposition 
is used. (5) The modification to which we refer is called mode ; 
that is, the manner or way in which what the verb indicates is 



(6) Mode, correctly speaking, is a property of propositions. At 
least it is in the difierent purposes for which propositions are em- 
ployed, that we can best and most readily trace the nature of 
modes. 

(7) Hitherto our attention has been directed exclusively to one 
species of propositions — those employed to assert or declare directly 
what is predicated as matter of fact of the subject. (8) These may 
(to distinguish them) be called declarative or indicative proposi- 
tions ; and if we had a form of the verb used exclusively, or chiefly 
to express propositions of this kind, it might be called the declara- 
tive or indicative mode. (9) In some languages a particular form 
of the verb is employed chiefly for the purpose of expressing asser- 
tions as matter of fact, and this form is in such languages distin- 
guished by the name of the indicative or declarative mode. 

(10) Again, a proposition may be employed, not for the pur- 
pose of directly declaring the assertion as matter of fact, but for the 

§ 54 (1) To what have tense modifications reference ? (2) Illustrate by an example. 
(3) To what have the modifications indicative of number and person reference ? 

(4) Describe another species of modification. (5) What is this modification called, and 
what does the name signify ? (6) What is mode properly speaking, and where can its na- 
ture be most readily traced ? , 

(7) To what species of propositions has our attention been hitherto directed ? (8) What 
may these be called, and what the form of verbs used chiefly to express them ? (9) Is there 
such a form in some languages ? 

(10) Describe another purpose for which a proposition may be employed. (11) Have 



108 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 54. 

purpose of expressing some condition on which, an assertion made 
in another proposition depends ; or for the purpose of modifying in 
some way a proposition to which it is attached or subjoined. (11) 
Some languages have a form of their verbs employed for this spe- 
cial purpose, which is called, from the nature of its function, the 
conditional^ conjunctive^ OY subjunctive mode. (12) The last is the 
name most commonly given to it — the subjunctive mode meaning 
the mode used in a subjoined proposition. (13) For example: You 
will not act in that manner, ^f you think on the consequences. (14) 
The first proposition here is declarative, but the assertion made in it 
depends upon a condition expressed in the subjoined proposition. 
(15) I sent the messenger that he might inform you of your danger. 
Here the proposition, / sent the messenger, is modified or completed 
by the subjoined proposition — he might inform you, &c. (16) In 
languages which have a subjunctive form of the verb, this form is 
employed in such subjoined propositions. 

(17) Eemaek. — We include both the declarative and the subjoined 
propositions under the class of assertive projyositions, though a subjoin- 
ed proposition very often makes no direct assertion. (18) It is always, 
however, of the same form, and if we remove the connecting word, 
(which is what in our language, with a few exceptions, alone indicates 
that the proposition is used for the purpose of expressing a condition 
or a modification,) the proposition at once becomes declarative. (19) 
Kemove the words if and that from the subjoined propositions in the 
above examples, and they become at once declarative assertions. 

(20) Another way or mode in which a proposition may be used, 
is to express a command, request, entreaty, &c. (21) A form of the 
verb used exclusively in such propositions, is called the imperative 
or commanding mode. (22) It will be remembered that we recog- 



some languages a form of the verb to be used in such propositions ? What is this form 
called ? (12) Which name is most commonly used ? (13) Give example. (14) liepeat the 
explanation. (15) Give second example, and repeat explanation. (16) What mode of the 
verb is employed in such subjoined propositions ? 

(17) Repeat the remark in regard to the manner in which we have classed declarative 
and subjoined or complementary propositions. (18) Do these two kinds of propositions 
agree in form ? (19) Give the illustration. 

(20) Describe another mode of employing propositions. (21) What is the form of verbs 
employed In such propositions called ? (22) Eepeat the remark. 



§ 55.] MODES OF ENGLISH VERBS. 109 

nised propositions of this kind as a distinct class under the name of 
imperative propositions. 

We recognised also another class of propositions — interrogative 
propositions — the form employed in asking questions. (23) This 
may be considered as another mode of the proposition. (24) There 
is no form of the verb in any language, which we know, employed 
exclusively for this purpose. (25) In our language the interroga- 
tive proposition is in most cases distinguished by a peculiar mode 
of arrangement — by placing the subject noun after the verb. (26) 
For example, we say assertively or declaratively, John has a hook ; 
and interrogatively, Has John a hook? (27) This we may call, if 
we please, a mode. (28) The exceptions to this mode of expressing 
interrogation by inversion of the subject noun and verb, as well as 
some other peculiarities of this form of speech, we shall consider in 
their proper place. (See § 98.) 

(29) T\iQ negativ e^ro^o^\ion (that is, the proposition which asserts 
that a predicate does not apply to a certain subject) is attended in our 
language sometimes with pecuharities which do not belong to affirma- 
tive propositions, such as we have hitherto adduced as examples. 
(30) This again might be called a mode of propositions, though the 
verb has no form intended exclusively to serve this purpose."^ 

§ 55. Of the Modes of English Verbs. — The observations 
already made will help the learner to comprehend what is meant 



* (31) Most grammarians call the verbal noun, to which we have, in ac- 
cordance with long established usage, given the name infinitive, the infinitive 
mode of the verb. But, as we do not admit that this verbal is a verb, we 
cannot admit the propriety of calling it a mode of the verb. It is certainly, 
we admit, a mode of expressing the action of the verb — the mode of express- 
ing it substantively — and a mode, too, that is sometimes employed to express 
more compactly that which is otherwise expressed by a subjoined or sub- 
junctive proposition. This we shall see, when we come to treat of infini- 
tives and propositions employed as modifications or complements. 



(23) What is said of the interrogative proposition ? (24) Have verhs an interrogative 
form ? (25) How is interrogation or questioning generally indicated in our language ? (26) 
Give example. (2T) What may this inverted arrangement be called ? (28) Eepeat the re- 
mark about exceptions. 

(29) What is said of negative propositions? (SO) What might the negative form of ex- 
pression be called ? (31) What is said in the note of the so called imimitwe mode f 



110 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 55. 

by the modes of verbs. We are next to examine to what extent 
this modification of verbs exists in the English language. 

(1) If we admit that verbs have modes, only when they indi- 
cate by a distinct form the manner in which a proposition is em- 
ployed, we have very little of mode remaining in our language — very 
little, even when we take into account not only the radical and Jlexional 
modifications of the forms of our verbs, but also those modifications 
eftected in the compound tenses (hereafter to be considered) by em- 
ploying auxiliaries. (2) Hence some have maintained that we have 
now no modes in the English language — no variation whatever in 
our verbs indicative of the manner in which predication is made, 
whether declaratively, conditionally, suhjunctively, or imperatively, &c. 

(3) Of a conditional OY subjunctive mode, differing in form from 
the verb when employed in the simple assertion of a fact, we have 
at present no remains save a past tense conditional of the verb to he. 
(4) The peculiarity of this conditional fortn extends only to the 
three singular persons. The plural persons correspond entirely 
with the same persons of the past tense used declaratively. (5) In 
this single instance, we have retained the subjunctive or conditional, 
from the Anglo-Saxon. 

(6) Most grammarians recognise in om- language a present 
subjunctive distinct from the present (or what we call the indefinite 
tense) indicative, or declarative. (Y) This subjunctive indefinite 
diflfers from the declarative indefinite only in suppressing the termi- 
nations st and s in the second and thu'd persons singular, and using 
the simple unmodified root for all the persons singular and plural. 
(8) For example, " Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Himr 
Here the verb " sZay" is employed without the usual modification 
{eth or s) of the third person used declaratively. " Though He 
slay ??ze," is only a conditional proposition, expressing not a fact, 
but a supposition, and serves to complete the other proposition, 
" yet will I trihst in HimP (9) The unmodified root he^ is used for all 

§ 55. (1) Repeat the substance of the remark, (2) What have some grammarians main- 
tained in reference to modes in the English language ? 

(3) What remains have we of a conditional mode f (4) How far does the peculiarity of 
this form extend ? (5) Repeat remark. 

(6) What do most grammarians recognise in om- language? (7) In what does this sub- 
junctive indefinit-e differ from the declarative indefinite ? (8) Give the example, and ex- 
planation. (9) Repeat remark in reference to the suhjimctive of to te. 



§ 55.] MODES OF ENGLISH VERBS. Ill 

the persons singular and plural of the indefinite^ subjunctive of the 
verb to be, instead of the variety of forms employed for these per- 
sons in the declarative mode. 

We believe that this immodified form of the second and third persons 
singular is now seldom used (and perhaps should never be used), except as 
an elliptical expression with a manifest suppression of some auxiliary, such 
as shall or should. Some have called it a future tense contingent. "We think 
the so called subjunctive present in such cases, when our analysis is carried 
to its legitimate limits, will be found an infinitive, having the verb, which 
it is intended to complete, suppressed. The example, for instance, above in- 
troduced, when fully expressed, would read thus : " Though He shall slay me" 
or '■'■Thoxigh He should slay me," &c. On the improper use of this unmodi- 
fied form — this so called subjunctive mode — there is much said, and to good 
purpose, in the Introduction to Webster's Dictionary, pp. 52-54. Ed. Spring- 
field, 1848. 

If we were to adopt fully the course indicated by the remarks now 
made, we should recognise no conditional or subjunctive mode in the language, 
save the fragments of a subjunctive or conditional past tense of the verb to he 
But as what has been called the present subjunctive form occurs often, espe- 
cially in our early writers, we shall give it a place in our tabular arrange- 
ments of the verbs ; calling it the subjunctive indefinite, or future contin- 
gent. We shall also exhibit the mode of expressing a command, called the 
imperative mode ; and the peculiarities of interrogative and negative propo- 
sitions, without insisting on calling these forms modes of the verb. 

(10) In expressing commands, &c., we employ the root of the 
verb without any modification. (11) This is called the imperative 
mode. We have only one person, the second singular and plural 
(in common use) in this mode, since we generally command or 
entreat only those to whom our discourse is addressed ; and we 
have no variation for tense. (12) In the imperative form of a pro- 
position we generally omit the subject noun, since this subject noun 
is always the pronoun you, and the party to whom we address the 
command, &c., is sufficiently indicated by circumstances independ- 
ent of articulate language. When the subject noun is expressed 
(as sometimes it is in the more ancient style), it is placed after the 
verb : as " Follow thou me ;" " Tarry ye." 

(10) What form of the verb do we employ in expressing commands? (11) What is this 
form of the verb vs^hen thus employed called ? (12) What is said of the omission of the sub- 
ject noun in imperative propositions, and when the subject noun is expressed, where is it 
placed ? 



112 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§56. 

In some languages there are distinct forms of the verb for the third 
persons, both singular and plural, of the imperative mode ; and in many of 
our grammars the combinations of words usually employed to translate these 
third persons imperative of other languages, are exhibited, as English third 
persons imperative. First persons formed in the same manner as these (so 
called) third persons are also supplied. In grammars which adopt this plan, 
the whole imperative mode is thus presented : 

Singidar. Plural. 

1st person, Let me call, Let us call, 

2d person, Call, or call thou, Call, or call ye or you, 

3d person. Let him call. Let them call. 

Our later grammarians generally retain only the second persons, and ana- 
lyze the forms given above as first and third persons, as consisting of the 
second person imperative of the verb let, completed by the infinitive of an- 
other verb — ^for instance, in the example above, the infinitive of the verb 
call. 

There is a form of the third persons singular and plural, and of the first 
person plural (we have found no well sanctioned example of the first person 
singular), sometimes found in prose, and freely employed by the poets, which 
is exactly similar to the second persons imperative. It consists like them of 
the root of the verb with the subject noun usually placed after it. "We sub- 
join examples, borrowed partly from the grammar of Mr. G-. Brown. It 
would be easy to multiply these. " Blessed be he that blesseth thee." "Thy 
kingdom coraeV 

" Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms. 

And live the rest secure of future harms."— Pope. 
" For me, -when I forget the darling theme, 
Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more. 
And, dead to joy, forget my lieart to beat !"— Thomson. 

" Be these my theme."— Idem. 

"^e thine despair and sceptred care."— Gkay. 
"My soul turn from them — tiirn we to survey." — Goldsmcth. 
Though these ancient or poetical forms seldom occur, we assign them a 
place in the conjugations below, that when the learner happens to meet with 
any of them he may find no difficulty in disposing of them satisfactorily. 
We join the other grammarians in discarding the forms made with the verb 
let; and in treating let in such cases as the real verb, and of the second 
person, instead of ih^ first or third. (See § 99.) 

§ 56. (1) We shall now exliibit the regular aiTangement of the 
numbers and persons of a few verbs, through the several modes and 
the simple tenses. (2) This kind of arrangement is called the Con- 

§ 56. (1) Tell what is now proposed. (2) What is such an arrangement as is proposed 



§66.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 113 

jugation of Verbs. (3) We have already noticed the division of 
verbs into two conjugations, in reference to tlie manner in which 
they form their past tenses and perfect participles. We shall pre- 
sent examples of both conjugations. (4) We arrange with them 
the verbal noun, called the infinitive, and the two verbal adjectives 
(formed from each verb) as adjuncts or accompanying forms, but 
not (the learner will remember) as coming within our classification 
or definition of verbs. (5) We write them in this manner with the 
conjugation of the simple tenses, because, with the help of the sim- 
ple tenses of certain other verbs, called auxiliaries, they are em- 
ployed in forming the compound tenses. (6) We shall also prefix 
to the tenses of some of the verbs first conjugated the predicate 
asserted in each tense respectively.* 

(Y) Conjugation of the Verb To Call. 

INDEFINITE TENSE. PREDICATE, CALLING. 

No. Pers, Indicatwe Mode. Subjvmctive Mode. Imperatwe Mode. 

Sing. 1. I call. If I call, 

2. Thou calks^. If thou call. Call, or call thou, 

3. He calls or calle^A. If he call. Call he, &c. [poetic). 
Plu. 1. We call, If we call. Call we, 

2. You or ye call. If you or ye call. Call, or call you or ye, 

3. They call. If they call. Call they {poetic). 

past" TENSE. PREDICATE, PAST CALLING. 

Sing. 1. I calkc?. Same as indicative. Wanting. 

2. Thou Q^Wedst, " " 

3. He, &c., calM. " « 
Plu. 1. We callet^, " " 

2. You or ye calk<i, " " 

3. They called " " 



* We employ the conjunctive if to indicate the subjunctive mode. This 
mode is very generally preceded by the conjunctions if or though. 

called? (3) How many conjugations are admitted, and by what are the conjugations dis- 
tinguished? (4) What other words do we arrange with the verbs in these forms of conju- 
gation ? (5) For what reason are these wofds arranged with the verbs ? (6) What is pre- 
fixed to the tenses of some of the verbs ? 



114 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§56. 

Infinitive. — To call, or call. 

-P, ( Imperfect, Oallmo'. 

Paeticiples I p^4^j_ ^,;ji^^^ 

We Here subjoin two rules, to be observed in the construction of 
propositions : — 

(7a) Rule I. — The verb in a proposition must always agree in 
number and person with the subject noun. 

Rule II. — Collective nouns, when the collection of indi\dduals 
which they represent is regarded simply as a collective unity — " as 
a whole" — have verbs of the singular form ; but when reference is 
made in the assertion to plurality in the subject — " when the collec- 
tive expresses many as individuals" — the verb is sometimes of the 
plural form. (See § 25.) 

Examples. — The society is numerous. The army icas victorious. 
The parliament is prorogued. The meeting was unanimous. The 
meeting we7'e divided into different parties = the members of the meet- 
ing were divided. 

Except when there is a decided reference to plurality of subjects 
in the assertion, we think it is safest to employ the singular form with 
collectives. Usage in this matter is very far from being fixed, in re- 
gard to several nouns of this class. For example, the word^-)eo/j?6 is 
used by the translators of the Bible, indiscriminately, as singular and 
as plural : "My people doth not consider." "My people, they who 
lead thee^''^ &c. " My people is fooHsh." " O my people, what have 
I done unto thee.''^ " O my people, that dwellest in Zion," &c. Again 
we have a people, any people, &c. On the contrary, we can produce 
any number of examples of the use of a plural verb with the subject 
people. "My people are gone into captivity." " My people Zoi^e to 
have it so," &c., &c. 

The use of these rules is confined chiefly, except in the verb to de., 
to the third persons of the indefinite tense ; since the second person 
singular is rarely used. The learner will remember that a violation 
of Rule I. is reckoned the grossest and most inexcusable of all gram- 
matical blunders. 

Nouns, singular in form, when manifestly plural in sense, take plu- 
ral verbs ; as, Ten head of cattle aee i7i the field ; Ten sail are in 
sigJit^ &c. 

Exeeoise I. — Let the verbs live^ love, command, &;c., be conjugated 
after the model above given. 

(7) Eepeat the verb call regularly as arranged above. (7a) Eepeat the rules. 



§ 56.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 115 

ExEECiES II., III., &c. — Give complete propositions with verbs of 
the modern conjugation, and subject nouns or pronouns of each person 
singular and plural through both tenses, and all the modes. Let the 
verbs be as various as possible. Let the active verbs have after them 
a noun to complete their meaning. The neuter verbs may also be 
accompanied by any expression necessary to complete their sense ; as, 
for example. He lives, may be completed by in the country, in the city, 
at home, &c. He walks, by in the fields, often, rapidly, &c. This 
exercise may, if necessary, be divided, and repeated (in the case of 
young pupils) till they are perfectly familiar with this conjugation. 

Conjugation of the verbs to write and to see, the irregular verb 
to go, and the auxiliaries to do and to have. (8) We omit the sub- 
junctive indefinite, and the imperative, as they always consist of the 
root of the verb. The past tense subjunctive does not differ from 
the past indicative. 



(9) Indefinite Tense. Predicates, Writing, &c. 



Sing. 1. I 


Write, 


See, 


Go, 


Do, 


Have, 


2. Thou 


Writes^, 


Sees^, 


Qoest, 


Tfoest, 


Hast, 


3. He, &c. 


Writes. 


Sees. 


Goes. 


Does. 


Has, or Hath. 


PL 1. We 


Write, 


See, 


Go, 


Do, 


Have, 


2. You 


Write, 


See, 


Go, 


Do, 


Have, 


3. They 


Write. 


See. 


Go. 


Do. 


Have. 


Past Tense. Predicates, Past Writing, &c. 


Sing. 1. I 


W^ote, 


Saw, 


Went, 


Did, 


Had, 


2. Thou 


Wrotes^, 


Sawes^, 


, 'Weiiiest 


, Dids^^ 


, Hads^, 


3. He, &c. 


Wrote. 


Saw. 


Went. 


Did. 


Had. 


PI. 1. We 


Wrote, 


Saw, 


Went, 


Did, 


Had, 


2. You 


Wrote, 


Saw, 


Went, 


Did, 


Had, 


3. They 


Wrote. 


Saw. 


Went. 


Did. 


Had. 



(8) What modes are omitted in the following table ? Mention the reason assigned for 
the omission. (9) Eepeat the conjugation of the verbs to lorite, to see, &c. Which of these 
verbs are active, and which neuter ? Tell how you know this fact. 



116 STRUCTURE 0"F LANGUAGE. [§ 56. 

Infinitives. To write. To see. To go. To do. To have. 

Imp. Participle. Writm^. Seeing. Going. Doing. Havm^. 

Perf. Participle. Wntten. Seen. Gone. Done. Had. 
Exercises I., II., III., &c. — Form propositions, as in the last pre 
scribed exercises, with the verbs in the above table, through each person 
in each tense, using a completing noun with the active verbs, and such 
words as slowly^ speedily^ into the house, city, country, &c., hy railroad, 
ty coach, &c., with the neuter verbs. 

"Write similar exercises with the verbs, lie, lay, put, pay, &c., dis- 
tinguishing, first, the active verbs from the neuter. See past form in 
list § 67. The teacher wiU select those verbs in most common use, 
and in the use of which mistakes most fi-equently occur. 

Conjugation of the irregular verb to he, through the simple 
tenses of each mode. (10) To he, like to do and to have, besides 
its other uses, serves also as an auxiliary verb. 

(11) IXDEFINITE TeXSE. PREDICATE, BeING. 
J^o. Per. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. Imperative Mode. 

Sing. 1. I am, I be, If I be, 

2. Thou art, Thoubeest, If thou be. Be, or Be thou, 

3. He, &c., is. He be.* If he, &c., be. Be he, &c. 
PI. 1. We are, We be. If we be. Be we, 

2. You or ye are, Ye be, If ye or you be. Be ye or you, 

3. They are. They be. If they be. Be they. 
The form in the second column is not at present in use. 

Past Texse. Predicate, Past Beixg. 

Sing. 1. I was, If I were, Wanting. 

2. Thou wasi, If thou wert, " 

3. He. &c., was. If he, &c., were. " 
PI. 1. We were. If we were, " 

2. Ye or you were, If ye or you were, " 

3. They were. If they were. " 



* This third person is rarely found. "We have an example in Shakspeare 
(cited by Dr. Lowth.) " I think it he thine indeed ; for thou liest in it." — 

(10) What purpose does the yerb to be, in common, with the verbs to do and to have, 
serve ? (11) Eepeat the conjugation of the verb to be. What is said of the form in the sec- 
ond column of the indefinite tense ? 



§ 56.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 117 ' 

Infinitive^ To be. 

Im^erf. Participle, Being. 
Perf. Participle, 'Been. 

ExEEOisES I., II., &c. — Form propositions in the same manner as in 
the preceding exercises, with the veri to he, through aU the persons of 
each tense and mode. The pupil will use any word (adjective) neces- 
sary to form complete sense with the verb to be; as, George is gene- 
rous, You are industrious, &c. Such complements will be explained 
in their place, but they may be now employed by the pupil, guided by 
his own judgment. This kind of exercise will prepare him to attend 
more intelligently to their explanation. 

Additional Exeecises in the use of Collectives. See Eule 11. — 
Form a given number of propositions with the verb to de, in both 
tenses, and with the following nouns for subjects : party, council, 
group, crowd, horde, liost, moh, people, nation, parliament, congress, 
assembly, army, navy, &c. Such word, as is necessary to complete the 
sense of the verb, to be used. Other verbs may be employed at the 
pleasure of the pupil. 



Hamlet. Some of the other persons of this now obsolete form occur fre- 
quently in our older writers. It may be observed that this form (the obso- 
lete form presented in the 2d column) of the indefinite tense, indicative of 
this verb, agrees, except in the second person singular, with the subjunctive 
indefinite. This renders it difiicult in some cases to assure ourselves whether 
an author, in employing those persons which correspond in the two modes, in- 
tended the indicative or the subjunctive form. The following may be given 
as undoubted examples of the obsolete form of the indicative indefinite, 
"If thou beest he." — Milton. "We 6(? twelve brethren." — Gen. 42: 82. 
"These be they who separate themselves." 

When we call this an obsolete form, we do not mean that it is older than 
the form am, art, is, &c., and that this latter has been adopted to supply its 
place. On the contrary, the two forms existed together, side by side, in the 
Anglo-Saxon period. Our verb to be, as now used, is partly formed from 
both. The indefinite tense of the subjunctive given above, as well as the 
infinitive, and two participles, have descended directly from the obsolete 
verb. In the Anglo-Saxon there was another indefinite subjunctive of the 
same meaning, of which no trace remains in modern English. This consisted 
of sy for the singular persons, and syn for the plural persons. Our verb to 
predicate being is, as we have before remarked, patched up out of the frag- 
ments of three or four verbs. 



118 



STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. 



[§56. 



Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs, Will, Shall, May, 
AND Can. 







INDEFINITE FORM. 






Sing. 


1. I 


Will, 


Shall, 


May, 


Can, 




2. Thou 


WU^, 


ShaU, 


Mays^, 


Canst, 




3. He, &c. 


Will. 


Shall. 


May. 


Can. 


Plur. 


1. We 


Will, 


Shall, 


May, 


Can, 




2. You 


Will, 


Shall, 


May, 


Can, 




3. They 


Will. 

PAST 


Shall. 

: FORM. 


May. 


Can. 


Sing. 


1. I 


Would, 


Should, 


Might, 


Could, 




2. Thou 


Woulds^, 


ShouldsiJ, 


Mights^, 


Coulds^, 




3. He, &c. 


Would. 


Should. 


Might. 


Could. 


Plur. 


1. Yfe 


Would, 


Should, 


Might, 


Could, 




2. You 


Would, 


Should, 


Might, 


Could, 




3. They 


Would. 


Should. 


Might. 


Could. 



(13) We have already noticed the peculiarity in the formation 
of the second persons singular of ivill and shall (§ 52 : 27). (14) 
It will be observed that none of these verbs takes the termination 
s in the third person singular. (15) In fact the verbs shall, may, 
can, and will too, when a mere auxiliary, have, according to present 
usage, invariably the same form in all the persons, except when in 
the solemn style the second person singular is, on some rare occa- 
sions, employed. 

[(16) Shall, may, can, and will (auxiliary) have no corresponding 
infinitives ov participles. (17) The same peculiarity belongs to must 
and ought, which have, perhaps, nearly equal claims -with may and can 
to be recognised as auxiliaries. (18) Will, employed not as an aux- 
iliary to indicate the futurity of what i3 asserted in a proposition, but 
in its original sense, to express determination, volition, &c., has both 



(12) Eepeatthe conjugations separately of will, shall, &c. 

(13) Mention the peculiarity referred to in regard of icill, and sJiall. (14) Eepeat the 
observation made in regard of the 3d person singular of all the verbs above conjugated. 
(15) Eepeat the general remark in regard to all the persons of these verbs in common use. 

[(16) What is said of shall, will, auxiliary &c. in reference to infinitives and participles? 
(17) Eepeat the remark in reference to must and ought. (18) Eepeat the remark in re- 
ference to will in its original use. 



§5*7.] THE COMPOUND TENSES. 119 

infinitive and participles^ and, as we have already observed (§ 52 : 28, 
note), generally tlie same terminations, at least in the third person in- 
definite, as other verbs.* 

(19) It is peculiar to all these verbs (except will^ not auxiliary) 
that they require, to complete them, the verhal nouns commonly called 
infinitives. As now used, they express no distinct predicate; or, 
rather, perhaps, language afibrds us no means of expressing the predi- 
cate which they serve to assert ; since, in their case, the verlal noun^ 
which expresses the simple predicate without assertion, is wanting, as 
well as the infinitive and vertal adjectives. (20) We have no such 
verbal nouns as shalling^ maying^ canning, musting^ &c., no more than 
we have to shall, to may, &c. (21) We have willing and to will, but 
in the proper original sense of the verb, not in its auxiliary sense. 
(22) In this respect they differ from the other auxiliaries, to he, to do, 
to have, for these serve not only as auxiliaries, but also to express the 
independent predicates, leing, doing, having. (23) The modifications 
of verbal meaning expressed by these words, will, shall, &c., are, in 
many languages, indicated by a modification of the form of the verb. 
(24) For this reason, and because they contain no expressible predicate, 
without the addition of an infinitive to complete them, the combina- 
tions formed by connecting these verbs with the infinitives of other 
verbs are commonly recognised (not without apparent cause) as com- 
pound TENSES of the verbs to which the complementary infinitives 
belong. We shall exhibit these compound tenses afterwards in their 
proper place.] 

§ 57. (1) We next come to treat of the compound tenses. 

Some have contended that these forms of expression are not tenses 
of the verb. If nothing is to be considered a tense, except what is 



* Shall, it is said, was formerly xised, like will, as a transitive verb, taking 
after it an objective modification. " Shall is the Saxon scealan, Gothic skallan, 
(seealc denoting a servant,) which signifies to owe, and consequently implies 
duty; as, "Hu mycel scealt thu?" (Luke 16: 5, 7,) that is, "How much 
owest thou?" It was used transitively down to Chaucer's time; thus, "The 
faith I shall to God;" i. e., otve. Grant's Eng. Gram. p. 74. Lond. 1813. We 
suspect that examples of shall thus used are rare, even in the earliest times, 

(19) Eepeat what is stated to be peculiar to all these verbs. (20) Are there verbal nouns 
and verbal adjectives or participles corresponding to these, as to the other verbs? (21) In 
what sense are u-ilUng and to will used ? (22) What is said of the auxiliaries to he, to do, 
to hoA^e, in reference to this matter ? (23) Eepeat the remark in regard to other languages. 
(24) Eepeat what is said of these verbs in relation to the formation of compound tenses.] 

§ 57. (1) What subject comes next to be treated ? 



120 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 67. 

expressed by a modification of the root of the verb, then, certainly, 
these are not tenses. They are, however, very peculiar forms of ex- 
pression, and even those grammarians who have rejected their claim 
to be recognised as distinct tenses, have found themselves compelled 
to exhibit them to the learner, and investigate their origin, structure, 
significance and functions, as weU as those who have given them a 
name and place in their arrangement of modes and tenses. The con- 
troversy about this matter among the grammarians, therefore, seems 
in a great measure a controversy about terms and names. "We take 
no part in this controversy. We have so arranged our book, that it 
may be conveniently used either by the advocates of the one or the 
other opinion. "We have done this, not for the purpose of suiting the 
views of those who discard the compound tenses, but, partly, because 
we think it will conduce to give the learner clearer notions of the in- 
flexion of our verbs to exhibit, as we have done, the simple tenses first, 
and apart. "When the learner is perfectly familiar with these, he will 
find no trouble in mastering the compound tenses, since he has already 
become acquainted, in learning the simple tenses of the auxiliaries, 
with all that is necessary to the fiexion of the compound tenses. He 
has only to add a participle or an infinitive to a simple tense of the 
auxiliary, to form a compound tense. The task of learning the simple 
tenses alone does not appear so formidable to the pupil as when the 
whole conjugation, including both simple and compound tenses, is at 
once presented to his view, and yet when he has mastered the simple 
tenses, his work is nearly accomplished. 

The language could be analyzed without any reference to the com- 
pound tenses. Every verb may be considered as belongiog to one of 
the tenses and modes which we have already exhibited — the final re- 
sult of a complete analysis will reduce all verbs to one of these forms. 
But it is inconvenient on every occasion to go through all the steps of 
this analysis, though the student of grammar should be able to go 
through them when required, and should be trained in reference to 
this purpose. Our plan of exhibiting the tenses of the verb will ren- 
der this an easy task. But it is not merely for the purpose of abbre- 
viating the process of analysis that we present the compound tenses. 
It is because some of the combinations called compound tenses are in 
our language employed in a sense different from the natural and origi- 
nal sense made up of the elements of which they are composed. The 
compound has come in the progress of language to convey a meaning 
distinct from that conveyed by the united elements in their proper 
separate sense. So that when we have pushed our analysis to the 
farthest, we have overshot the mark — we have got separate words 



§ 57.] THE COMPOUND TENSES. 121 

having separate proper meanings, whicli meanings combined are not 
the exact meaning now attached by common consent to the compound 
expression. This will appear more clearly when we come to examine 
the compound tenses separately, and trace their formation and account 
for their present meaning. Still we may now illustrate what we have 
said by a single example. The river will overflow its lariks to-morroio. 
Now if we resolve the words " will overflow''- into will^ indefinite tense 
of the verb to will, and the infinitive " overflow,^'' we have two sepa- 
rate meanings, which combined will not express what is intended by 
the combination " will overflow." These words do not mean that the 
river determines or has a will to overflow its banks, but predicate of 
the river the future action of overflowing. The compound has come 
to express or imply a new meaning, not made up of the combined 
original meanings of " wilP and " overflow.^'' But more of this when 
we come to treat of the future tense. 

(2) The learner will take notice that we here pass from one to 
another of those general classes of modifications ^f the subject noun 
and the verb mentioned above in § 34 ; namely, from those which 
are effected by some change of the /orm of the subject noun or the 
verb, to those which are effected by the employment of distinct 
modifying words. 

[(3) It may here be remarked that though the compound tenses 
about to' be presented are classed as tenses or forms of the several 
verbs whose infinitives and participles are combined with the aux- 
iliaries to form these compounds, and though logically considered, 
they may be regarded as modifications of the meanings of these 
verbs, yet, as regards their grammatical form, they are all really 
modifications of the auxiliaries which enter into these combina- 
tions. (4) The auxiliary is in all cases the real verb — the word 
which possesses the assertive force, and the infinitive or participle of 
the verb under which the grammarians arrange these forms, and to 
which they refer them in analysis, are, grammatically considered, 
complements of the auxiliaries^ 

(5) These complements or modifications of the auxiliaries, which 
with them form compound tenses, are of three distinct kinds ; 

(2) Give a statement of the fact which the student is requested to notice. 
[(3) Eepeat the observation in reference to the compound tenses. (4) Which part of the 
compound expression is really the verb ?J 

(5) How many distinct kinds of these complements or modifications of the auxiliary are 



122 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 58. 

namely: (6) I. The infinitive belonging to the particular verb 
to which the compound tense is referred by those who allow them 
to rank as distinct tenses. This is employed with the auxiliaries, 
do, will, shall, may, can, would, should, could. We might add, if 
we please, must and dare, and ought. (Y) With all these, except 
ought, the form of the infinitive, which consists of the bare o'oot of 
the verb without the particle to, is combined to form the compound 
tenses. For example, / do call, I will call, &c. 

(8) II. The second form of these modifications of the auxilia- 
ries consists of a participle employed to complete the predicate ex- 
pressed by the auxiliary. (9) This form is employed with the verb 
to he. (10) Both the imperfect and the perfect participles of verbs 
are united with the several tenses of this verb for purposes to be 
explained hereafter."^ (11) Example, The man is calling. Here 
heing, the predicate asserted by is, is completed by the imperfect 
participle calling j what is asserted of the man is heing calling. 
As a second example we take the man is called. Here the perfect 
participle is used, and the predicate asserted is heing called. 

(12) III. The third form of modification or complement is that 
employed 'with the verb have. This is the perfect participle, the 
same as with the verb to he, but employed in a peculiar manner, 
which we shall describe when we come to the compound tenses 
formed by the help of the verb to have. 

§ 58. Compound Tense formed with Shall and Will. — We 
shall first present the compound form employed to express an as- 
sertion that has reference simply to the future — to a time to come. 
(1) This is called the Future Tense. It is formed by the combi- 

* It will be seen afterward that we are inclined to think that it is not 
imlikely the verbal noun, and not the imperfect participle, which is used to 
form compound tenses with the verb to be. (See § 64.) 

enumerated? (6) Mention the first kind, and name the auxiliaries with which it is used. 
(7) What form of the infinitive is employed with these auxiliaries respectively ? 

(8) Mention the second form ofthese modifications employed with auxiliaries. (9) Name 
the auxiliary with which this form is employed. (10) Which participles are employed 
with the verb to be f (11) Qive examples and illustration. 

(12) State what is said of the third form of modification, and the auxiliary with which it 
is employed. 

§58. (]) How is the future tense formed? (2) Give example. (-3) Eepeat the remark 
in reference to the verbal in this tense. 



§ 58.] * COMPOUND TENSES. FUTURE. 123 

nation of the auxiliary shall, or the auxihary will with the infinitive 
or verbal noun. (2) For example, / shall write, and / will write. 
(3) The verbal in this tense is never preceded by the particle to. 

(3a) Eemark. The name auxiliary is given to shall, will, do, 
&c., because they help in forming the compound tenses. 

The conjugation or arrangement of the singular and plural per- 
sons of the future tense of the verb to write is exhibited below in 
two columns distinguished as Nos. I. and II. (4) We employ No. 
I. when we refer chiefly or exclusively " to futurity of event ;" (5) 
and No. II. when the speaker indicates his determination in refer- 
ence to a future event. (6) If he speaks of himself, his determi- 
nation of doing or being what is expressed by the predicate of the 
proposition, if of himself and associates, using the first person plu- 
ral, his and their joint determination. If he speaks of those whom 
he addresses, or of third parties, his determination that they shall 
do or he whatever is expressed by the verb. 

(7) Future Tense of the Verb to Write. 

Subjects. - Predicate, F^dure Writing. 

I. 11. 

Sing. 



Plur. 



Exercises I., II., &c. — Form propositions in the same manner as pre- 
scribed before with the verbs in the future tense, and modified as in the 
preceding exercises by any word necessary to complete the sense. These 
exercises may be multiplied at pleasure. Especial attention should be 
given to the distinction between shall and will. Questions should be 
asked from time to time in reference to the subjects and predicates of 
the propositions presented, that what has been taught in reference to 
propositions may be well fixed in the memory of the pupils. 

[(8) Originally, at least, these combinations did not directly ex- 
press futurity. (9) Shall, in its original use, expressed some kind of 

(3a) Repeat the remark on the name aumliary. 

(4) When do we employ the form in column I. ? (5) When the form in column II. 
(6) Repeat the illustration. (7) Repeat separately the two forms of i\i.e future tense. 
[(8) Did these combinations originally express futurity directly ? (9) What did shall and 



1. 


I 


Shall write, 


Will write, 


2. 


Thou 


Wilt write. 


Shalt write, 


3. 


He, &c. 


Will write. 


Shall write. 


1. 


We 


Shall write. 


Will write, 


2. 


You 


Will write. 


Shall write. 


3. 


They, &c. 


Will write. 


Shall write. 



124 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. * [§ 58. 

necessity arising from duty, obligation, or external compulsion, an^d 
will, determination, intention, purpose, choice, volition, &c. (10) / 
shall write, implied, originally, / am under some necessity to write. 
(11) From this it would naturally be inferred that I am alout to write 
at some future time. (12) I will write, properly expresses (or, at least, 
once expressed) in a direct manner that / determine or 2yurpose, or 
have a will to write. (13) From this, in like manner, it may be in- 
ferred that lam aiout to write. (14) The reference to the future now 
imphed — perhaps now directly suggested — by these forms, must in the 
beginning have been an inference of the understanding, the result of 
an act of reasoning, not of the simple apprehension of the direct sig- 
nification of the terms* 

(15) The original force of slw2l and loill is in a great measure dis- 
guised, since, in the vicissitudes of language, they have come to be so 
generally used to indicate future time. (16) Still they retain so much 
of there original force, that the one cannot be employed for the other 
without impropriety — without a violation of the idiomatic usage of 
the language.! (17) Those who have been brought up in England, or 

* "What is said above in regard of the manner in which shall and will come 
to indicate futurity, is worthy of the careful attention of the grammarian 
and the philologist. It frequently occurs that what was at first an inference 
• — a deduction of reason — comes in the progress of a language to be recognised 
as the proper and direct sense of pai'ticular words and phrases. A reference 
to this fact may sometimes enable us to explain forms of expression, construc- 
tions and idioms, which cannot readily be explained in any other way. For 
example, "I have been young," comes by inference to equal " Xow I am 
old." In the same way, in Latin, vixit, "he has fived," comes to imply "he 
is dead;" and " JFuit Hium," "Ti'oy has been," to imply, Troy is no more. 
Living, in the one case, is declared to be completed, and being or existing in 
the other ; and fi'om the fact that these states of living and of being are fin- 
ished, the inference is obvious. 

f If these words had once come to indicate simple futurity, without re- 
taining any tiling of their original distinct significance — of necessity in the 
case of shall, and of purpose or volition in the case of loill — they would na- 
turally have come afterwards to be used indifferently ; or, perhaps, rather 
one of them would have fallen into disuse. 

will originally express ? (10) Give example of shall (11) What would naturally be in- 
ferred from this expression ? (12) What does will directly express ? (13) What may be 
naturally inferred from this expression ? (14) What is remarked of the reference to the fu- 
ture now implied or suggested by these forms ? 

(15) What is remarked of the original force of shall and will ? (16) What proof is given 
that they still retain part of their original force ? (17) What is said of the natives of Eng- 



§58.] COMPOUND TENSES. FUTURE. 125 

New England, or any colony of pure English descent, seldom employ 
these two words improperly. (18) On the contrary, it is very difficult 
even for the educated natives of Scotland and Ireland, and of many parts 
of the United States, to avoid inaccuracies in the use of these words, 
because, in the conversation of the uneducated classes — familiar to 
their ears from early infancy — the proper distinction is not observed. 
The same difficulty is felt by all foreigners in the use of shall and 
loill.^ 

(19) The rule commonly given for the employment of shall and 
will^ is, that when future time alone is intended to be indicated shall 
is employed with the first persons singular and plural, and will with 
the second and third persons singular and plural. (20) On the con- 
trary, will^ used with a subject of the first person singular or plural, 
indicates a promise or a threat, together with a reference to the fu- 
ture ; and shall^ used with the second and third persons, indicates a 
threat — some species of compulsion.! (21) In other words, a speaker 
indicates future action, &c., on the part of himself, or on the part of 
himself and others, whom he represents, by employiDg shall — import- 
ing that he, or he and his associates, are under constraint to perform 
the action, &c. ; and he indicates future voluntary action, &c,, on the 
part of those whom he addresses, or others, by declaring, not that they 
are under constraint (this might be discourteous), but that they are 
willing^ disposed to perform the action, &c. Again, when the speaker 
promises or threatens the future performance of an action, &c., on his 

* The speech attributed to the Scotchman, who had the misfortune to fall 
into a deep ditch in a dark night, is a good example of the misuse of shall 
and will. " I will be drowned ; nobody shall save me." The man understood 
himself as imploring the assistance of the passers-by. The Englishman, on 
the contrary, who heard his cries, concluded from his language that he was 
resolved to drown himself, and that he deprecated all officious interference 
with his purpose. 

f This rule has been expressed in the following doggerel lines : 

In the first person simply shall foretells ; 
In will a threat, or else a promise dwells ; 
Shall, in the second, and the third, dges threat ; 
Will simply then foretells the future feat. 

land, New England, &c., in reference to the correct usage of shall and will f (18) What of 
the natives of Scotland, Ireland, aud many parts of the Unites States ? 

(19) What is the rule for the employment of shall and will, when future time alone is 
intended to be indicated ? (20) What does will used with a subject of the 1st person in- 
dicate? And what s/^aZZ used with subjects of the 2d and 3d persons? (21) State the 
rule in another form and more at length. 



126 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 58. 

own part, or on his own part and the part of others, he asserts idUI or 
determination^ to perform the action, &c., employing the auxihary 
will. And when he wishes it to be understood that those whom he 
addresses, or others, are under constraint (whether exercised by him, 
or resulting from any other cause), to perform an action, &c., he asserts 
this constraint by using sJiall.^ which imports necessity from obligation 
or compulsion.* 

(22) It may be useful to subjoin a few examples for the purpose of 
illustration. / shall go to the country to-morrow ; I will go to the 
country to-morrow. The first of these forms is properly used when 
circumstances render it necessary that I should go to the country, and 
I merely indicate that I am about to go ; the second, when I volun- 
tarily determine to go, or 2'>Tomise to go. (23) / shall never see him 
again ; I will never see him again. The first is appropriately em- 
ployed, when I despair of seeing a friend again ; the latter, when I 
determine never to see a person again, because I am displeased with 
his conduct. We subjoin a number of examples from good authors, 
selected from those given by Mr. D'Orsey. The learner may be pro- 
fitably exercised in trying to assign a reason for the use of shall or 
WILL in each of them. (24) " When I am forgotten, as I shall be." — 
Shaks. " I shall win, for I know she loill venture there now." — 
Southey. "I shall forget myself." — Shaks. "Hear me, for I will 
speak." — Shaks. " You shall digest the venom of your spleen." " For 
them no more the blazing hearth shall burn." — Gray. " The stars 
shall fade away."] 

Note. — ^As it is important to all who would speak English correctly, to 
be able to decide with certainty and readiness, where they should employ 
the auxiliary shall, and where the auxiliary will, we sxibjoin some additional 

* We have spoken above of uture action, &c. What we have said will 
apply whatever may be the predicate asserted, whether action or heing. It 
will be observed in all this that the true key to the proper use of these two 
foi-ms of the future tense is to be fovind by attending carefully to the original 
signification of the Avords hJioII and will. The only case in which nothing 
of their original force can be traced, is when we use will in speaking of sub- 
jects incapable of detercQination or volition. Then it implies nothing but 
futurity, as in the example, The river will overflow its hanks. This may be 
considered an insensible extension of the use of will, from being predicated 
of persons to be predicated of things, if we may not consider it as originat- 
ing from a sort of personification. 

(22) Tell the different purposes for which we employ IsJiaU go. and Itdll go. (23) 
Tell the difference between I shall never see Mm again, and I will never see 7iim again. 
(24) Why is shall employed in this example ? And so of the other examples.] 



§ 59.] COMPOUND TENSES WITH HAVE. 127 

remarks from D'Orsey. We have made a few alterations to adapt these re- 
marks more perfectly to om* pm'pose and to our opinions. 

Place an emphasis on shall second and third, and will first person, and 
determination is expressed on the part of the speaker. For example, / will 
go, with emphasis on will expresses the determination of the speaker to go. 
You SHALL go, he shall go, they shall go, with emphasis on shall express 
positive command, or intention, on the part of the speaker, to force compliance. 

Mistakes, in the use of shall and will, are more likely to be made in ask- 
ing questions than in declarative propositions. " A Scotchman says, Wilj, 1 
do it ? WILL we go ? that is. Am I willing to do it ? are we willing to go ? Such 
questions are obviously absurd, as no one can answer except the speaker. 
The forms should be. Shall I do it? shall we go? thus asking permission," or 
whether it is incumbent on the party represented by the first person in the 
one case to do it, in the other to go. We can call to mind at present but one 
case in which the auxiliary will can, with propriety, be employed with the 
first persons in an interrogative proposition. This is when the interrogative 
form is employed to express negation in an emphatic or impassioned manner. 
For example, suppose I am solicited to assist in some undertaking which ap- 
pears to me dishonorable. The party soliciting inquires, Will you assist us 
in this undertaking ? " Wnx I assist in such a base undertaking ? No." Here 
I use will, either taking it up and repeating it from the question addressed 
to me ; or I may intend to propound the question to my own conscience, 
Am I willing, can I possibly have a will to assist, &c? Except in such extra- 
ordinary cases, we presume, will should never be employed with the first 
persons in an interrogative proposition. "Shall you go ? means. Do you in- 
tend to go .^" (rather, we say. Is it incumbent on you to go ?) " whereas. Will 
you go ? implies that the person asking is anxious you should go. Shall 
they go ? has" (may have) " for reply. Yes, if you give them leave. Will they go ? 
may be answered, / cannot tell ; ask them. Will sometimes expresses a sim- 
ple question as to what may happen, thus, Will it rain ? Will the dog come 
out of his kennel ? means. Do you think he will ? Shall the dog come out ? 
means. Will you let him ?" or Do you require that he shall ? or think it neces- 
sary that he should? 

(25) Much of what has been said of shall and icill applies with 
equal force to should and wottld., and may assist the learner in deter- 
mining which is proper to be employed in any particular case.] 

§ 59. Compound Tenses formed with the Auxiliary Have. 
— (1) We next present the compound tenses formed by means of the 
auxiliary have. These are : 

^ I. (2) The Perfect Ten'se, formed by combining the indefinite 

(25) What is remarked in reference to should and would ?'] 

§ 59. (1) Which compound teiises are next to be presented ? (2) How is the perfect 



128 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 59. 

tense of have with a perfect participle. (3) This tense is used to 
express an action or event that is 'perfected or finished. (4) That 
the action or event is past, is generally implied bv the fact that it 
is finished, but this form gives no direct indication of time, (o) 
Examples : " Persius has given us a very humorous account of a 
young fellow," &c. — Addison. " A fiiend of mine whom I have for- 
merly mentioned.^'' — Idem. " Cicero has written orations." " Moses 
has told us many important facts in his writings." 

II. (6) The Past Perfect Texse, formed by combining the 
past tense of the verb have with a perfect participle. (7) This 
tense is used in a proposition expressing an action or event perfected 
or finished at a past time. (8) This is usually connected with 
another proposition expressing some other action or event, which 
determines the past time intended. (9) Example : John had 
finished his letter, lohen his father arrived.'^ 

in. (10) The Future Perfect Texse formed by combining 
the future tense of have with the perfect participle. (11) This 
tense is used to express that of two future actions or events, one 
will be completed prior to the occurrence of the other. (12) Ex- 

* This form is often used to express a condition on which the assertion 
in another proposition depends. The proposition in which it is used thus, is 
generally preceded by the conditional sign if. But the if is sometimes 
omitted. Example : " Had / but served my God with half the zeal." — Shak., 
instead of the fuller expression, if I bad but seeved. 

This form is also used for would have, or should have, as in John 11 : 32, 
" Lord, if thou hadst been here, tny brother had not died." 

In the following passages from Sterne and Byron, quoted by D'Orsey, 
(see D'Orsey's Enghsh grammar, Part I., p. 92,) we have both these uses ex- 
emplified. "Had /met it i?i the plains of Hindostan /had reverenced it." 
— Sterne. 

" Oh ! HAD my fate been joined with thine, 
As once this pledge appeared the toJcen ; 
These follies had not then been mine — 

My early votes had not been broken." — Byi'on, 



tense formed ? (3) What is this tense used to express ? (4) What further is generally im- 
plied by this tense ? (5) Eepeat examples. 

(6) How is the past perfect formed ? (T) In what kind of proposition is it employed ? 
'8) With what is this proposition generally connected? Ans. "With another proposition," 
&c., as above. (9) Example. 

• (10) How is the future perfect t^me formed ? (11) What is it used to express ? (12) 
Give example. State exception with example. 



§ 59.] COMPOUND TENSES WITH HAVE. 129 

ample : When you shall have completed your task, I will permit you 
to play. We sometimes by this tense express the completion of an 
action at a present time; as, ^Your brother will have finished his 
task by this time. 

(13) Remark. — We cannot readily imagine a case in which will 
could be employed with propriety with the first person in this tense ; 
and SHALL, on the contrary, is very seldom employed in the second 
and third persons. We now exhibit the conjugation of these three 
tenses. 

(14) To Write. Perfect Tense. Predicate, Having Written. 

Singular. Plural. 

I have 'Written, We have written, 

Thou hast written, You have written, 

He has written. They have written. 

(15) Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I had written. We had ivritten, 

Thou hadst written. You had ivritten, 

He had written. They had written. 

(16) Future Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 



I shall have written, We shall have written, 

Thou wilt or shalt have written. You will or shall have written, 

He will or shall have ivritten. They will or shall have written. 

Compound Infinitive. To have written. 
Compound Participle. Having written. 

(17) Let it be remembered that have itself has aP these tenses, 
formed by the combination of its indefinite, past and future tenses, 
with its perfect participle, thus: perfect, / have had ; past perfect, / 
had had ; future perfect, I shall have had. 

Exercises L, II,, &c. — Let a given number of propositions with 



(13) Repeat the remark. 

(14) Repeat the perfect tense. (15) Repeat the past perfect tense. (16) Repeat the 
future j}erfect t&iise. 

(17) What remark is marie in reference to the compound tenses of hate itself? 



130 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 59. 

verbs in the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses, be formed 
by the pupil, till he is found perfectly familiar with the formation 
and use of these tenses. Let the reason be given for using the parti- 
cular tense employed ; viz. : because he intended to express coimpleted 
action^ action completed at a past time^ or to he completed at a future 
time, according as the case may chance to be. 

From the combination of the hidejinite tense of have with t\\Q per- 
fect participle, we might call this form, with propriety, the indefinite 
perfect — that is, a form indefinite as regards time, and perfect or ^J»e7'- 
fected as regards the condition of the action. But since this form, as 
we think, gives no direct indication of time, but simply indicates that 
what is predicated by the verb is completed, we omit the epithet inde- 
finite as superfluous. Some grammarians have called this form the 
present perfect. Holding, as these grammarians do, that what we have 
called the indefinite tense is a present tense, the name present perfect is 
appropriately given by them to the form under consideration. Simi- 
lar reasons to those which we have given for rejecting the name Pre- 
sent Tense as an improper designation of what we have called the 
Indefinite Tense, lead us in like manner to reject the name of Present 
Perfect. "We question the accuracy of the common assertion of gram- 
marians that this tense always " represents an action or event as per- 
fect or completed in present time, expressed or implied ; that is, in a 
period of which the present forms a party We admit that when " an 
action or event completed in" "a period of time of which the present 
forms a part" is to be expressed, this tense is almost universally em- 
ployed, if the period of time is mentioned. (We have noticed some 
exceptions at the end of IsTote, § 50.) But we do not admit that pre- 
sent time is necessarily and always implied, if not expressed, when this 
tense is used. Is there any reference to present time in the following 
examples ? " I have leen young, and now am old." " And where the 
Atlantic rolls, wide continents have Moomedy — Byron. "Privileges 
have heen granted to legislators in all ages." — Lord Mansfield. " Many, 
who have deen saluted with the huzzas of a crowd one day, have re- 
ceived their execrations the next ; and many who, by the popularity of 
their times, have heen held up as spotless patriots, have, nevertheless, 
appeared upon the historian's page, when truth has triumphed over 
delusion, the assassins of liberty." — Idem. In fact, we can discover 
no example to justify the assertion that this tense, of itself, necessarily 
or directly, indicates any connection with the present period of time, 
or any other period. When no period of time is expressed in the pro- 
position in which this tense is used, a past time — a time before the 
present moment, but otherwise indefinite — is, as we think, generally 



§ 59.] OBSERVATIONS ON THE PERFECT TENSE. 131 

understood by inference from the completed condition of the action 
or event. When a period of time is expressed in the proposition, it 
must be such as is described above — one " of which the present forms 
a part." It can never, we believe, be used with propriety, when a 
period of time definitely past is expressed. Such expressions as, I 
have written to my friend yesterday^ are rejected as inaccurate by all 
the grammarians. Our definition of this tense — perfect^ as to condi- 
tion of the action^ indefinite as to time — will, if we mistake not, be 
found much more conformable to the actual usage of the language 
than the one commonly given, which seems to be more appropriate to 
the Greek perfect tense than to ours. The grammarians have taken 
much trouble to reconcile the actual use of this tense with their 
definition. Their success, in our opinion, has not equalled their inge- 
nuity and their industry. Perhaps the misapprehension (such we cer- 
tainly think it) in reference to the use of this form has originated, 
partly in recognising what we call the indefinite tense as a present 
tense, and partly in an unthinking application of what has been taught, 
in reference to the Greek perfect tense, to the English perfect tense. 

"We may notice one example— we presume more might be found — ■ 
in which this tense is employed, in speaking of a future event : " The 
cock shall not crow, till thou hast denied me thrice." Now certainly 
the future time is not here indicated by the form of the verb, but by 
the conjunctive adverb of time till, and the connection with another 
proposition explicitly declaring a future event ; still it will be hard to 
account for such employment of this form, if we adopt the definition 
of its use commonly given by grammarians. 

Substantially the same views which we have given above were presented 
to the public sixty years ago by the late Dr. Noah Webster. 

We quote from his Dissertations on the English Language, published in 
Boston, I'ZSO : " I have loved, or moved, expresses an action performed and 
completed, generally within a period of time not far distant ; but leaves the 
particular 'point of time wholly indefinite or undetermined. On the other 
hand, I loved is necessarily employed when a particular period or point of 
time is specified. Thus, it is correct to say, I read a hook yesterday, last week, 
ten years ago, cfec. ; but it is not grammatical to say, I have read a book yes- 
terday, last week, <fec." 

Had the doctor perceived, when he wrote this, that the so called present 
tense is altogether indefinite, it would have contributed to the clearness and 
precision of his views in refereiice to the perfect tense. 

Dr. Crombie, in speaking of what he calls the present tense, uses the fol- 
lowing language : "The first (the form / wrzi'^?) is indefinite as to time and 
action. If I say, / write, it is inrpossible to ascertain by the mere expr€ 



132 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 59. 

■whether be signified, I write now, I write daily, or, I am a writer in gencraV^ 
— Crombie's Eng. Grammar, London, 1809, p. 167. 

Strange, that after this, he should persist in calling this form a preseoit 
tense, and should, in consequence, involye himself in a mist, when he comes 
to speak of the perfect tense. We quote part of his remarks on the perfect 
tense, accompanied by our commentary in parentheses : 

'■^ I have written, expresses an action completed," (so far sound,) " in a time 
supposed to be continued to the present, or an action, whose consequences 
extend to the present time." (Does not agree with all the facts ; unsound, 
expressed in this unmodified manner.) "As a tense, it derives its character 
from the tense I have," (excellent,) " significant of present time ;" (all wrong, 
and wholly inconsistent with his own assertion above, that this tense " is 
indefinite as to time and action ;") while the perfection of the action is denoted 
by the perfect participle." (All right.) — Crombie's Eng. Gram., p. 169. 

This perfect tense seems to have been little, if at all used with its present 
significance in the Anglo-Saxon. "Where we employ the perfect, the Anglo- 
Saxons employed the past tense. The reader may find many examples to 
illustrate this point in the Anglo-Saxon version of John, ch. 17. This chap- 
ter abounds vnth instances of the use of the perfect tense in the original 
Greek, and in our authorised version. They are all rendered in the Anglo- 
Saxon version by the past tense. Wiclif, in 1380, used the perfect as we do 
at present. It may be here noticed that in Latin, also, the past and perfect 
are expressed by the same form. 

We are not prepared to trace the introduction and extension of the use 
of this form in our language. It is Hkely that it was first employed only 
in the case of active or transitive verbs, followed by a passive object, to 
which the participle was attached as a modification. Thus, at first, it is pro- 
bable that the words, / have icritten a letter, meant the same as, / have a let- 
ter written ; I possess a letter in the written state. In the progress of the 
language, the original connection of the participle with the object must, on 
this supposition, have been gradually overlooked or forgotten, and the form 
have come insensibly to express, as it now does, the predication of having 
WRriTEN (in the present sense of these words), and this modified by the ob- 
ject — a letter, instead of expressing the predication of having or possessing 
a letter — and the letter modified by the word written. This step being made, 
the insensible extension of the use of this form to neuter verbs was easy. 
Before this step, the use of the verb indicating possession, in connection with 
a perfect participle would have appeared absurd. It would have been, for 
instance, in such an expression as, The man has gone, to assert possession, 
where there is nothing possessed. 

In corroboration of the views now expressed, we adduce the fact that 
many of our neuter verbs are still, as the French express it, conjugated with 
the verb to be as well as with the verb to have. For example, we say both 
He is gone and He has gone, is come and has come, is arrived and has arrived, 



§ 60.] COMPOUND TENSES WITH DO. 133 

is fallen and has fallen, is descended and has descended, &c. In French, 
most neuter verbs are conjugated to this day with etre. The same remark 
applies to other languages. Is it not likely that all our neuter verbs were 
originally compounded with the verb to he, and that the usage in regard of the 
more numerous class of active verbs was insensibly extended to them, after 
the proper and original force of the verb Have in these active compounds 
had ceased to be recognised? 

§ 60. Compound Tenses formed with the Auxiliary Do. — 
We next proceed to exhibit the compound tenses^* formed by the 
help of the auxiHaiy do. 

Do is a very energetic little word, and the compound tenses 
formed by combining its indefinite and past tenses with an infini- 
tive are used, as the indefinite and past tenses of the verb whose 
infinitive is thus combined ; 1st, To express either strong assertion, 
or contradiction of an assertion, or the answer to a question ; 2d, In 
asking a question ; and 3d, In negative propositions. A form with 
do is also sometimes used in imperative propositions. (2) These 
forms are employed for the purposes mentioned instead of the in- 
definite and past tenses of all the verbs in the language which have 
infinitives, except the auxiharies, to be, and to have. Shall, will, may, 
can, must, ought, it will be recollected, have no infinitives. (3) The 
verb do itself has these compound tenses formed by the combina- 
tion of its indefinite and past tenses with its own infinitive ; thus, 
^e does do so; He did do so ; Does he do so? Did he do so? 

(4) The learner ought to guard against combining do with have. 

(5) He does have, and He did have. Does he have, and He don't have, 
&c., are incorrect forms of expression, and yet often used .in some 
parts of the United States, f (6) No person accustomed to use the 
English language from childhood is in danger of combining do with he. 

* Perhaps we should rather call these forms modes. 

f This form of expression is tmphilosophical — incongruous as regards 
meaning — since the verb Have does not express energy, but mere passive 
possession. When we wish to express active or energetic having, we employ 
the verbs to possess, or to hold. And with both these, no can with propriety 
be combined. But it is sufficient to condemn these combinations of do with 
have, that they are unsanctioned by respectable usage. No correct writer 

§ 60. (1) What is said of do, and for what purposes are the compound tenses formed by 
it used ? (2) For what tenses are these forms employed ? (3) What is said of the com- 
pound tenses of do itself? (4) Eepeat the caution to the learner. (5) What is said of such 
expressions as, Se does have, he did have, &c.? (6) Eepeat remark about do and l>e. 



134 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 60. 

(Y) We present the compounds formed by do in three modes, 
the emphatic, the interrogative and the negative. (8) The interro- 
gative form is distinguished by the fact that the subject is arranged 
after the auxiliary ; and the negative form takes the negative parti- 
cle xoT after the auxiliary. (9) According to the present usage of 
our language we rarely employ the simple indefinite or past tense, 
except of the verbs to he and to have, in an interrogative or nega- 
tive proposition. (10) Such forms of expression as Writes he? 
Goes he ? He lurites not, He goes not, are now scarcely used, except 
in poetiy. We say now universally, Does he write ? Does he go ? 
He does not write, cfcc. We shall mention an exception in interro- 
gative forms presently. (11) By turning to the authorised English 
version of the Bible, or any book written in the same or any pre- 
ceding age, we shall find the simple tenses very generally employed 
both in interrogative and negative propositions. " Believest thou 
not ?" " Know ye what ?" " What went ye out to see ?" " WTiy 
stand ye here ?" " Went not." " Eepented not." Instead of these 
expressions we now use, Dost thou not believe? Do ye Tcnoio what? 
What did ye go out to see ? Why do ye stand here ? Did not go. 



or speaker on either side of the Atlantic ever employs them. So far as we 
know, they are used by no class of persons, whether educated or unedu- 
cated, in the British Isles, The following caution therefore, has exclusive 
reference to the citizens of the United States. 

Great care should be taken by all who wish to speak good English, to 
guard against the use of these combinations, which persons even of good 
education are subject to adopt insensibly in colloquial intercom-se with the 
uneducated. Some attention should be given to this grammatical impro- 
priety by teachers, wherever it prevails, not only by calling the attention 
of the learner to the nature of the mistake, and correcting it whenever it is 
made, but by exercises so constructed as to render the correct usage familiar 
in cases where such blunders would most likely be committed. We think 
it the more necessary to call the attention of teachers to these ungrammatical 
forms of expression, because in some places the use of them is so prevalent, 
that careless writers begin to introduce them in works prepared for the 
press, and because, so far as we know, this solecism is not noticed in the 
grammars in common use. 



(7) Name the several compotmds formed with do. (8) How is the interrogative form 
distinguished? And how the negative form? (9) Eepeat the remark in reference to the 
present usage of our language. (10) Eepeat the illustration. (11) Describe the usage com- 



§ 60.] COMPOUND TENSES WITH DO. 135 

Bid not repent. (12) The forms with do are also employed in the 
Bible and in writings of that age ; but they had not yet com- 
pletely superseded the simple tenses in interrogative and negative 
propositions. 

The Verb To Write. 

EMPHATIC FORM. INTERROGATIVE FORM. NEGATIVE FORM. 

(13) Indefinite Tense. 

Sing. 1. I do write, Do I write ? I do not write, 

2. Thou dost write, Dost thou write ? Thou dost not write, 

3. He does write. Does he write ? He does not write. 
Plur. 1. We do write. Do we write? We do not write, 

2. You do write. Do you write? You do not write, 

3. They do write. Do they write ? They do not write. 



(14) Past 

Sing. 1. I did write. Did I write ? I did not write, 

2. Thou didst write. Didst thou write ? Thou didst not write. 

All the other persons are the same, except as to the subject, 
with the first person singular. 

(15) Imjperative Emphatic Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

2d Person, Do thou write. Do ye or you write. 

(16) When the compound tenses are used interrogatively, the 
subject is placed after the first auxiliary word ; and when used 
negatively, the negative particle is placed after the first auxiliary 
word. (I'Z) The first auxiliary ivord in all compound tenses is 
really the verb — the assertive word., and always to be regarded as 
such. (18) Hence the subject in interrogation and the negative 

mon in the authorised version of the Bible, and illustrate by examples. (12) Are the inter- 
rogative forms with do employed in the Bible and writings of the same age ? 

(13) Kepeat the indefinite tense of the emphatic form. Of the interrogative form. Of 
the negative form, (14) Eepeat in like' manner the jpasi fe?ise of the same /orms. (15) Re- 
peat the emphatic im,perative form.. (16) Where is the subject placed when compound 
tenses are used interrogatively? And where the negative particle when they are used 
negatively f (17) Eepeat the remark in reference to the first auxiliary word. (18) Ee- 
peat the inference. 



136 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 60. 

particle in negation regularly follow it, and have precedence of all 
the other parts of the combination.* 

(1 9) Remark. — In interrogative propositions generally^ the sub- 
ject follows the verb. Exception : (20) When the subject noun is 
an interrogative word, or is modified by an interrogative word, it is 
placed before the verb, like the subject in assertive propositions ; 
(21) and, in this case, the simple indefinite and past tenses, and 
not the com2:)ounds with do, are employed. (22) Examples: Who 
GOES to the post-office this morning? Which horse runs fastest? 
What house fell ? We shall consider the interrogative subject 
nouns in another place. (§ 98.) 

(23) Compound Tenses used Interrogatively. 
With an Ordinary Subject. With an Interrogative for Suhject. 

Future. Shall I write ? &c. " Who will write ? 

Perfect. Have I written ? &c. W^ho has written ? 

Past Per f. Had I written ? &c. Who had written ? 

Future Perf Shall I have written ? &c. Who shall have written ? 
(24) In the same manner questions are made with the com- 
pound tenses (yet to be considered) formed with the help of the 
verb to he and other auxiliaries. (25) The subject of the interroga- 
tive proposition, if not an interrogative word^ is placed after the 
auxiliary ; Is he loriting ? Is he called ? Can he go ? &c. With an 
interrogative word for subject, the order of arrangement is, Who is 
writing ? Who is called ? Which party can go ? &c. 

Exercises in Interrogative, Emphatic and Ii^egative Proposi- 
tions. Exercise I. — Write a given number of interrogative proposi- 
tions, using the indefinite and past tenses interrogative. This and aU 
the following exercises to be repeated tiU the pupil is perfectly familiar 

* In negative interrogation, the negative follows the subject ; thus, Bo 1 
not write ? 



(19) Repeat the remark about the place of the siihject in interrogative 
(20) Repeat the exception. (21) "What form of the verb is employed in this case ? (22) 
Repeat examples, 

(23) Repeat '(h^ future tense interrogatively through all the persons. The perfect in 
like manner. The past jyerfect. The future. And the 3d persons of each tense with an 
interrogative word for subject. (24) "What is said in reference to questions made Avith the 
compound tenses (yet to be considered) formed with to ie and the other auxiliaries ? (25) 
Repeat the LUustration, and the examples. 



§61.] COMPOUND TENSES WITH MAY, CAN, MIGHT, ETC. 137 

with the form of the verb employed, and with the use of this kind of 
proposition. 

ExEEOiSE II. — Write a given number of interrogative propositions 
employing verbs in the compound tenses. 

ExEEciSE III. — A given number of emphatic propositions in the 
indefinite and past tenses. 

ExEEOisES IV., Y., &c. — Negative propositions in the indefinite 
and past tenses, and in the compound tenses. 

ExEEOisE YL, &c. — Write imperative propositions with the impera- 
tive empJiatic foi'm, 

§ 61. Compound Tenses formed by the combination of In- 
finitives WITH May, Can, Might, Could, Would, Should. — (1) 
These tenses are usually represented as constituting what is called 
the POTENTIAL mode. (2) They are generally used as before stated 
(§ 54 : 10), either in the construction of the principal proposition in 
a conditional assertion, or in expressing the condition on which a con- 
ditional assertion depends. (3) The following sentences afford exam- 
ples of both uses : / ivould go to the country^ if you would go ivith 
me. I can follow, if you can lead. I may do it, if you may do it, 
&c. (4) The first proposition in each of these sentences contains an 
assertion dependent on a condition expressed in the second. (5) 
The first proposition in each is declarative, but in a conditional man- 
ner ; the second performs the function of a subjoined or complemen- 
tary proposition. (6) But all these compound tenses, and especially 
that formed with can, are employed sometimes to make uncon- 
ditional assertions. (7) Examples : The boy can write. John 
may PLAY to-morroiv. Exercise would greatly improve his health. 
Industry should be rewarded. The young man might study more 
diligently. Socrates could govern his temper. 

[(8) If we call these forms the conditional tenses, or the condi- 
tional mode, it is only because they are most frequently employed in 
connexion with a condition, or to express a condition, not because 

§ 61. (1) What do the tenses formed with may, can, might, &c., constitute? (2) How 
are they generally used ? (3) Eepeat the ^examples. (4) What is said of the first proposi- 
tion in each of these sentences ? (5) What further is said of the first proposition ? What 
of the second? (6) Eepeat the remark made in regard to all these compound teiises f (7) 
Eepeat the examples. 

[(S) What reason is assigned for calling these the conditional tenses, or conditional 
mode ? and what in fact indicates conditional assertion ? See note. 



138 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 61. 

they are exclusively so employed,* (9) We shall now exhibit these 
tenses as they are commonly arranged ; but we present in the table § 
64, what we consider a more correct arrangement founded on the fact 
that mighty could^ would and should^ are generally equally indefinite, 
as regards time, with may and can. See § 63. (10) In the common 
grammars, and in the arrangement below, it is assumed that may and 
can form present (what we call indefinite) tenses, and might, could., 
would, and should, past tenses.] 

Conditional (or Potential) Mode. 
(11) Indefinite Tense. 
I, He, We, You, They, may write, or can write. 
2d Person Singular, Thou mayst write, or canst write. 

(12) Fast Tense. 
I, &c., might, could, would, or should write. 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst write. 

(13) Perfect Tense. 
I, &c., may or can have written. 
Thou mayst or canst have written. 

(14) Past Perfect. 

I, &c., might, could, would, or should have written. 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have written. 



* It is not by a form of the verb that we indicate, in our language, that 
an assertion is made conditionally, but by means of conjunctive words ; as, 
if, lest, unless, though, &c. "We sometimes suppress the conditional conjunc- 
tive word, especially with the words had and were, whether used as principal 
verbs or auxiliaries, and indicate the suppression or the conditional nature 
of the assertion by a transposition of the siihject and verb. For example, Had 
I a horse, for If I had a horse. Were las rich as that man, for If I were as 
rich, (fee. Should he arrive in time, for If he should arrive, <fec. Still were 
(used with a singular subject) may with propriety be called conditional, as it 
is exclusively used in expressing conditions ; and the forms under considera- 
tion made with may, can, might, &Q. may also be called conditional, because 
they most frequently express either a condition or an assertion which depends 
on a condition. 

"We use both if I were (or were I) and if I should be, conditionally, or 

(9) How are these compound tenses here arranged ? "What is said of the arrangement in 
table § 64 ? (10) What is assumed in the common gi-ammars and in the arrangement here 
given?] (11) Repeat all the persons in each number of /ma?/ tonfe. Ot I can write. (^1) 
Eepeat in the same manner, might write, could write, &c. (13) In the same manner mo^ 
Tume written^ and can have written. (14) In the same manner migTit have written, &c. 



§ 62.] COMPOUND FORMS WITH TO BE. 139 

(15) The second person singiilar is seldom used. The form used with all 
the other persons is invariably the same. (IG) Must maybe united in the 
conjugation with can and may, if the teacher pleases. The young learner 
ought to inflect each form separately; thus, I may write, Thou mayst write, 
&c. I can lurite, Thou canst write, &q. 

Exercises on the Conditional or Potential Mode. Exercises 
I., II., &c. — Write propositions similar to the preceding, with the verbs 
in the different tenses of the conditional mode. 

§ 62. Compound Forms made with the Yerb To Be, — (1) The 
verb to be has the same compound tenses as other verbs, except that 
it does not admit of the forms compounded with the verb do ; neither 
the emphatic, the interrogative, nor the negative form. It has besides 
the simjyle tenses already exhidited, the perfect tense, / have dee^i ; the 
past perfect, I had deen ; the future, I shall or will de ; the future 
perfect, / shall have l)een ; the conditional tenses / may or can 5d, 
/ may or can have leen; and the hypothetical tenses, / mighty 
could^ would^ or should 5e, / mighty &c., have l)een. It is not 
necessary to exhibit all these tenses at full length, as they will 
be sufficiently exhibited in the conjugation of the two compound 
forms, made by uniting the various tenses of this verb with the im- 
perfect and the perfect participles. If it is thought necessary to go 
through the whole conjugation of the verb to he separately, it can 
be learnt from these compound conjugations, by omitting the par- 
ticiples. 

The Progressive Form of the Yerb. — (2) By combining the im- 
perfect or progressive participle with the tenses of the verb to be, we 
constitute what may be called the progressive form of the several 
verbs. (3) This form combines the significance of the several tenses 
of the verb to be with the action of the verb (whose participle is 
united Avitli them) in its incomplete or progressive condition. (4) In 



rather hypothetically, but with this difference, that were implies strongly 
that the condition does not exist, should be implies contingency. The last is 
little different from the future with shall. It may be regarded as a kind of 



(15) Eepeat the remark in reference to the 2d person singular. The remarli in reference 
to the other persons. (16) Eepeat the remark in reference to miist. And in reference to 
tlie mode of inflecting these forms. 

§ 62. (1) Eepeat the suhstance of what is said about the compound tenses of the verb to 
le f 

(2) Describe the progressive forms of the verb. (3) What is said of the significance of 
these forms ? (4) Wliat does this form in fact amount to ? 



140 



STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. 



[§62. 



fact it amounts to nothing more or less, tlian the completing of the 
verb TO be by the imperfect or progressive participle (or perhaps rather 
by the verbal noun, sec below, § 64), precisely as it is completed by 
any other adjective. 

We exhibit the passive form of the verb, together with the pro- 
gressive form, since they diifer only as to the participle employed in 
combination with the several tenses of the verb to be. In the passive 
form we employ the perfect participle. For remarks on the purposes 
which the passive form serves, see § 47. 

"We have arranged the following table so as to exhibit at once the conju- 
gation of the verb to he, so far as is necessary to enable the learner to re- 
peat the whole, "VYe stop in each tense when we come to that point beyond 
which there occurs no further variation of the form. The learner will sup- 
ply what is omitted by repeating the proper subject for each person, with 
the form last presented to the end of the tense. The conjugation of the 
verb to he should first be repeated by itself, and afterwards with each of the 
participles separately through all the tenses ; thus making three distinct con- 
jugations to be prepared and recited separately. 



Verb To Be, and Progressive and Passive Forms of To Call. 

Progressive. 
Calling, 



Tense. 

Sing. 1. I am 

2. Thou art 

3. He is 
Plur. 1. We are 

Past Tense. 

Sing. 1. I was 

2. Thou wast 

3. He was 
Plur. 1. We were 

Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. I have been 

2. Thou hast been 

3. He has been 
Plur. 1. We have been 



Calling, 



Calling, 



Callii 



Called, 



Called, 



Called, 



Called, 



softened fidicre, a future with a doubt imphed. ^^ I will deliver yoxir message^ 
if I SHOULD ARRFv^E in time, expresses, perhaps, more uncertainty of my arrival 
than if I shall, &c. 



§62.] 



PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. 



141 





Past Perfect Tense. 


Progressive. 


Passive. 


Sing. 


1. I bad been 


CaUing, 


Called, 




2. Thou hadst been 


u 


u 




3. He had been 


it 


11 




Future Tense. 






Sing. 


1. I shall or will be 


Calling, 


Called, 




2. Thou wilt or shalt be 


u 


u 




3. He will or shall be 


u 


u 




Future Perfect Tense. 






Sing. 


1. I shall have been 


Calling, 


Called, 




2. Thou wilt or shalt have been 


u 


u 




3. He will or shall have been 


11 


u 




Imperative Tense. 






Sing. 


2. Be, or be thou 


Calling, 


Called, 


Plur. 


2. Be, or be you or ye 

Swliunctive Indefinite. 


a 


(( 


Sing. 


1. If I be 

Past Tense Subjunctive. 


Calling, 


Called, 


Sing. 


1. If I were 


Calling, 


CaUed, 




2. If thou wert 


u 


<c 




3. If he were 


u 


u 


Plur. 


1. If we were 

Conditional Form. 


u 


(( 


Sing. 


1. I may or can be 


Calling, 


Called, 




2. Thou mayst or canst be 


u 


u 




3. He may or can be 


u 


li 


Plur. 


1. We may or can be 

Conditional Perfect. 


a 


a 


Sing. 


1. I may or can have been 


Calling, 


Called, 




2. Thou mayst or canst have been 


(( 


a 




3. He may, or can have been 


u 


u 


Plur. 


1. We may or can have been 

Hypothetical Form. 


<( 


u 


Sing. 


1 . I might, could, would, or should be 


1 Calling, 


Called, 




2. Thou mights t, couldst, &c., 


ii 


(( 




3. He might, could, &c.. 


a 


u 


Plur. 


1. We might, &c.. 


(( 


iC 



142 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 62. 



Hypothetiml Perfect. Progressvve. 

Sing. 1. I might liave been Calling, Called, 

2. Thou mightst, &c., " " 

3. He might, &c., " " 
Phir. 1. We might, &c., " " 

AVe add the verbals formed by the combination of the verbals 
of TO BE with the perfect participles of other verbs. 

Passive Infinitives. 

Indefinite. To be called. 
Perfect. To have been called. 

Participles. 
Being called. 
Ha\dng been called. 

EiMARK, — "What we have called \h.e passive form is generally called the 
passive voice of verbs. 

We have given above and in the conjugation of the perfect tenses the 
compound infinitives and the compound participles. "We may here add that 
the verbal in ing is also often compounded in the same way, and for the 
same reason as the verbs and participles, viz., because of the nature of the 
conception which all three in common express. As the auxiliary is the real 
verb in compound tenses, so in infinitives, participles and verbals in ing the 
first auxiliary is that which gives the grammatical name to the compound. 
It is that which serves as the basis of the expression, the participles or in- 
finitives added are really modifications. "We give examples of compound 
verbals in ing. Being excessively praised is injurious, especially to the young. 
Here the compound verbal being praised, is the subject norm. Having prac- 
tised obedience, is an excellent preparation for exercising authority over others. 
Here having practised is subject noun, modified by obedience — objective 
modification. (See §76: 82.) 

A verbal in ing analogous to the passive compound infinitive, is some- 
times employed. The having been educated in that institution, affords a 
'presumption in favor of his scholarship. We may give examples of these 
compound verbals used in other functions. " Much depends on the rule's 
being observed, and error will be the consequence of its being neglecied." 
Most of these forms are clumsy, and therefore avoided by writers of deli- 
cate taste. 

Exercises I., II., &c.— Write a given number of propositions formed 
with the compound tenses of the verb to l)e. 



§ 63.] THE AUXILIARIES WILL, SHALL, ETC. 143 

ExEECiSES III., IV,, &c. — Write a given number of propositions 
with the tenses of the progressive form of the verb. 

Exercises V., YI., &c. — Write a given number of propositions 
with the passive form of the verb. 

The verbs in all these exercises to be varied as much as possible. 
The exercises to be repeated according to the judgment of the in- 
structor. 

The learner may pass over the following observations on the aux- 
iliaries, and on the use of the past tenses in hypothetical propositions, 
till he comes to the subject of conditional and hypothetical propositions 
in the chapter on accessory propositions. Both the conditional and hypo- 
thetical forms given in the table § 64, and the following remarks, are to 
be carefully studied in connection with what we shall say on the lat- 
ter subject. See § 137. 

§ 63. Additioistal eemaeks on the auxiliaries Will, Shall, May, 
Can, and theie past foems. Would, Should, &c., and on theie use 
in Conditional and Hypothetical Propositions. 

Will (auxiliary) and shall^ though of the indefinite form, are em- 
ployed, as is seen in treating of i\iQ future tense^ to predicate future 
actions or events. Would and should retain the original sense of will 
and shall ; that is to say, would expresses determination^ or volition^ 
and should duty^ odligation, generally, but not always, in propositions 
either expressing a condition, or depending on a condition. For ex- 
ample, / would go, or I should go, if / could ; and / could go, if I would. 
In the same manner may and might are used to express possihility, or 
the having permission, license, &c,, and can and could to express 
poioer ; as, I may help him, if I can find him; I might help him, if 1 
could find him ; both propositions expressing the possibility of help- 
ing the person indicated by him, on condition of possessing the power 
to find him. The difference in the meaning between the condition ex- 
pressed by if I can, and if I could, will be considered presently. 

It is important to remark that, what we have presented (both in 
the conjugation of will, shall, may, can, separately, and in the conju- 
gation of the compound conditional tenses (§ 61) formed with may, 
can, might, &c.), as past forms are generally only past in form, not 
in signifi.cation. They rarely, of themselves, indicate past time, though 
they are often employed in speaking of past events. That the time of 
the events is past is usually indicated either by a word expressive of 
past time, or by the tense of the verb in the accompanying proposition ; 
as, Last year he could do that ; John said he might, could, would, should 
do so. Here, in both examples, a past time is indicated, but in the one 



144 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 63. 

by the words last yem\ and in the other by the tense of the verb said. 
We can equally say, Se could, do so now, provided this proposition is 
to be followed by a condition ; as, He could do so now., if he would. 
Hence in the conjugation of these words singly, we have abstained 
from calling the past form a, past tense. Would., should., might, could., 
and we may include ought (past tense of oice) and were {subjunctive 
or conditional form of to 5e), are all generally used indefinitely as to 
time. And whatever may be the diiference in meaning between may 
and might., can and could., it does not, as is generally the case in other 
verbs, consist in this, that might and could always express as past., 
that which may and can express indefinitely in reference to time. 

It is to be remembered, however, that these past forms are gener- 
ally used in propositions subjoined to other propositions having their 
verbs in ih.e past tense. For example. He told tliem he would., should., 
might., or could come. Here, because told is the past tense, the past forms 
would., should., &c., must be employed in the subjoined propositions.* 
Yet if would., should., &c., indicate any time here, it must be a time 
future in reference to the time indicated by told. We do not say. He 
told them that he may come., or he can come. The same remark holds 
good when one of these past forms., would., should., might., could., is 
used in the leading proposition ; for example, I icould go., if I could. 
We cannot sa}^, with propriety, I would go if I can. These past forms 
naturally, like all past tenses, accompany each other. May and can 
also, in conditional propositions, and their accessories, which express 
the condition^ are used together ; as. He mo.y go., if he can ; and He can 
go., if he may. May and can are also used in the same way in express- 
ing a condition on which an assertion in the future form depends; as, 
He will go., if he can., &c.t 



* There is an apparent exception in such cases as the following : / said 
to them, I can go. Such an expression is not to be accounted incorrect, be- 
cause I may be understood as quoting myself — as repeating the very words 
used on the occasion I'eferred to. He said, he can go, cannot be defended in 
the same way. We must here use could, He said, he could go. Or we might 
say, without impropriety, but with some stiffness, John (or he) said " I can 
go ;" repeating the very words supposed to have been employed by John. 

f A similar law regulates the sequence of the tenses in other languages. In 
Latin, for example, a tense of the subjunctive mode which accords in time 
with the tense of the principal verb (the verb of the proposition which the 
subjunctive proposition modifies), must always be employed; namely, either 
a -present, or a present perfect of the s^ihjunctive, must follow presents, pres- 
ent perfects, and futures of the indicative ; and either imperfect or past per- 



§ 63.] THE AUXILIARIES MAY, CAN, ETC. 145 

Because we have said that the past forms, would^ should^ &c., are 
generally employed in propositions subjoined to assertions having re- 
ference to the past, it is not to be inferred that they can never be sub- 
joined to propositions, in which the verb is of the indefinite tense, nor 
that they may not \)Q followed by modifying propositions having verbs 
of the indefinite tense. It commonly occurs that propositions in 
which these past forms are used, are connected with preceding asser- 
tions, and with assertions following them made by verbs in tlie in- 
definite tense. Examples, I think your father would -e-r-el pleased to 
see your young friend. I wisb. that I cojjl-d affboye his conduct. I 
BELIEVE you MIGHT PEEPAEE your Icssons tetter. Your brother says 
you SHOULD not act as you do. In fact other verbs, as well as these, 
might be used in the past tense, under the same circumstances in 
which these are employed in the above examples. Some of our writers 
have followed too servilely and inconsiderately the Latin rule, that 
conjunctions couple like tenses. They have, in so doing, committed 
gross blunders, especially where that is used (or is supposed to be im- 
plied) for the conjunctive word, as in aU the above examples. "We 
have an interesting collection of these blunders in Dr. "Webster's Disser- 
tations, from which we select a few specimens : 

" Suppose I were to say, that to every art there was a system of snch 
various and well-approved principles." — Harris. 

" If an atheist would well consider the arguments in this book, he would 
confess there was a God." 'Why not,' remarks Dr. Webster, 'confess that 
there is a God V 

" Two young men have made a discovery that there was a God." — Swift. 
*A curious discovery indeed!' says Dr. Webster. 'Were the Dean still alive, 
he might find there is a great inaccuracy in that passage of his works.' — 
Dissertations, p. 270, et seq. 

We may here see a strong confirmation of the propriety of the course we 
pursue in reference to the indefinite (improperly called the present) tense. As 
we have described it, it is exactly the form which suits in the above passages. 
A misapprehension of the true force of this form (confounding it with the 
present tense of other languages), together with the prejudice derived from 
familiarity with the Latin rule about similar tenses, has, no doubt, be- 
trayed the learned authors into the use of the above absurd forms of ex- 
pression—equally at variance with the English idiom and with good sense. 



feet tenses must follow imperfect,' past, and past perfect tenses of the indica- 
tive. Whether the present or perfect, the imperfect, or the past perfect, is 
to be used depends upon the condition of the action, and is not determined 
by the form of the verb in the principal proposition. ^ 

10 



146 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 63. 

When employed in a proposition expressing the condition on which 
another assertion depends, there is a marked difference in- the sense 
imphed by may and can on the one hand, and might and could on the 
other, though both forms are as thus employed altogether indejinite 
in reference to time. This will be readily understood if we examine 
the sense expressed in the foUowing examples : / will go^ if I can. 
Here, if I can.^ implies that I do not know whether I shall be able to 
go or not. / would go^ -i/"/ could. Here it is intimated that I can- 
not go. The same may be said of the conditional propositions, I icill 
go., if I may ; and I would go., if I might. The condition in the first 
intimates that I am ignorant whether I shall obtain permission to go 
or not, and the condition in the second that I have not permission or 
hberty to go. The same applies to I might go^ if I would., and I would 
go., if I should. The first condition implies that I have not a will to 
go, the second that I do not think it incumbent on me to go. 

In the first case, when we use the indefinite forms., we express the 
intention to act in a certain manner dependent on a certain contin- 
gency ; in the second, when we use the past forms.^ we express what 
our conduct would be on the supposition of a state of circumstances 
different from that which actually exists. 

We may call the whole proposition, including assertion and condi- 
tion, a conditional proxjosition.,-^]xQiTL the condition is uncertain or con- 
tingent ; and a hypothetical proposition when it is implied that the 
supposed condition has no existence. These terms being well under- 
stood, we may, fi-om the above observations, deduce the following rule, 
for the use of the indefinite and past tenses of these verbs, including 
will and shall., as well as may and can. 

EuLE. — We employ the indefinite forms in the condAtional proposi- 
tion., and the past forms in the hypothetical proposition.* 

What we have said in regard to the employment of past forms in 
hypothetical propositions, applies to other verbs as well as to the auxi- 
liaries might., could., would., should. In hypothetical propositions hav- 
ing would, should, &c., for verbs in the principal proposition, when 
other verbs are employed in the accessory proposition, it is the past 
form of these verbs which is used. Like woidd, should, (fee, they are 
used indefinitely — without reference to time ; and the proposition of 
the affirmative form implies that the condition which it expresses dves 
not exist, and that of the negative form, on the contrary, implies that 



* For a further account of hypothetical and conditional propositions, 
the chapter on accessory propositions, § 13*7. 



§ 63.] PAST TENSE USED HYPOTHETICALLY. ■ 147 

it does exist. We believe Dr. ISToah "Webster was the first who called 
attention, at least in our language, to this fact. See his Dissertations on 
the English language. We borrow a few of his examples and illustra- 
tions : — 

" A servant calls on me for a book which his master would borrow. If I 
am uncertain whether I have that book or not, I reply in this manner : ' If 
the book is in mj library, or if I have the book, your master shall be wel- 
come to the use of it.' But if I am certain I do not possess the book, the 
reply is different: ' I have not the book you mention; if I had, it should be 
at your master's service.' What is the difference between these two forms of 
speaking ? It cannot be in time, for both refer to the same. The ideas both 
respect present time : ' If I have it now, it shall be at your master's service.' 
' If I had it 7imv, it should be.' Tlie distinction in the meaning is universally 
understood, and is simply this : the first expresses uncertainty, the last implies 
certainty, but in a peculiar manner; for an affirmative sentence implies a 
positive negation; and a negative sentence implies a positive affirmation. 
Thus, if I had the book, implies a positive denial of having it ; if I had not 
the book, implies that I have it ; and both speak of possessing or not possess- 
ing it at this preseiit time. 

" The same distinction runs through all the verbs in the language. A man, 
shut up in an interior apartment, would say to his friend, ^ Jfit rains, you 
cannot go home.' This would denote the speaker's tmcertainty. But on 
coming to the door and ascertaining the fact, he would say, ' If it rained, you 
should not go ;' or, * If it did not rain, you might go.' Can these verbs be in 
past time ? By no means. If it did not rain now you could go, is present, 
for the present existence of the fact prevents the man from going. 

" These forms of speech are established, by unanimous consent, in prac- 
tice." . . . 

" We have not these antiquities ; and if we had them, they would add to 
our uncertainty." — Bolingbroke on History, Let. 3. 

"Whereas, had I (if I had) still the same woods to range in, which I once 
had, when I was a fox-hunter, I should not resign my manhood for a main- 
tenance." — Spect, No. 16. 

" Whatever these verbs may be in declaratory phrases, yet, after the con- 
ditional conjunctions if and though, they often express present ideas, as in 
the foregoing examples. In such cases, this form of the verb may be denomi- 
nated the hypothetical present tense." (We would rather say. This may be 
called the hypothetical use of the Past Form.) "This would distinguish it 
from the same form, when it expresses uncertainty in the past time ; for this 
circumstance must not be passed without notice. Thus, ' If he had letters 
by the last mail,' denotes the speaker's uncertainty as to a past fact or event. 
But, * If he had a book, he would lend it,' denotes a present certainty that 
he has it not. The times referred to are wholly distinct." 



148 * STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 63. 

The example "If he had letters by the last mail," is not given above with 
sufficient clearness. Whether it " denotes the speaker's uncertainty" or not, 
depends on -what may follow it to complete the sense, which remains mani- 
festly incomplete. If he hab letters by the last mail, he did not say so to me. 
Here uncertainty and past time are denoted. If he had letters hy the last 
mail, he would tell me. Here it is implied that he had no letters by the mail ; 
the whole proposition is merely hypothetical, and the time indefinite. Again, if 
we remove the hypothetical accessory, from " If he had a book," and replace it 
by a different form of proposition, the verb will resume its past signification, 
and uncertainty will be denoted. Thus, If he had a book, I did not see it. 

Dr. Webster seems not to have observed that this usage of past 
tenses in hypothetical propositions is not peculiar to the English lan- 
guage, and he has made no attempt to account for it, perhaps regard- 
ing it as a mere idiomatic use, and as not coming within the province 
of universal grammar. We have not been so happy as to meet with 
any explanation of this use of past tenses in hypotlieticah — a use pre- 
valent in many languages — nor even with an attempt at an explana- 
tion. Most probably, attempts, and perhaps successful attempts, to 
explain this matter, have been made in some of the innumerable trea- 
tises on our own and on other languages, though we have overlooked 
them. We subjoin our own conjectures regarding the origin of a 
usage so prevalent in different languages : 

We suspect that the cause of the past forms might., could.., would and 
should having come to be employed so generally in an indefinite man- 
ner — ^indefinite as regards time — may be traced to their frequent use 
in hypothetical propositions. From being used in these without defi- 
nite reference to past time, or to any time, they may have come very 
naturally to be used for other purposes in the same manner. (It is to 
be remembered aU along that they are still used sometimes with the 
proper force of preterits.) If, then, we can account for the use of a 
past form in a hypothetical proposition, the whole matter wiU be ex- 
plained. We are not sure that we can give aU the reasons for this use, 
but we can suggest something that may help to account for it. Let 
us propose an example of a hypothetical proposition, to which reference 
may be made as we proceed in our remarks. I would gladly accom- 
pany you., if I could. What is to be expressed by this form is my wil- 
lingness to accom.pany you upon a supposed condition. Now, what 
tense form shall we employ, for the purpose of expressing this kind of 
condition? Not the indefinite form. From this, we are precluded by 
the fact that this has been employed to express a condition that is con- 
f, unknown to me as yet, but which the future wiU determine. 



§ 63.] PAST TENSES USED HYPOTHETIC ALLY. 149 

I will gladly accompany you if I can. This form is already appropri- 
ated. There was no future originally in the language ; and if there 
had been, it would not have served our purpose ; it rather serves the 
purpose of expressing the contingent. In fact, the conditional propo- 
sition, though the condition is expressed by an indefinite form, has 
regard to a future act or event. Hence, there was no form left to use 
but the past, except we should invent one for this special purpose. 

Farther, it may be argued that the selection of the past tense for 
this purpose is peculiarly appropriate. "We have already said that 
there is perhaps always in a hypothetical proposition 2i foregone conclu- 
sion implied — an admission that what is Jiypothetically asserted is only 
a supposed case — a case beyond the confines of reality. This is natu- 
rally inferred from the very fact that the proposition is stated hypo- 
thetically. If the condition on which the principal proposition is 
made to depend, really existed, either there would be no need of 
adverting to it at all, or it would be stated as a fact ; and if the condi- 
tion were contingent, it would coincide with the conditional proposi- 
tion. The hypothesis then relates to that which has no existence at 
present, and is not expected to exist in the future ; it has no connection 
with time, and if by possibility with any time, it must be with the 
past. Being precluded, then, from the use of other forms, we dispose 
of the hypothetical among the facts that are ly gone. As we say, I 
have been young, or, I was young, to imply that I am no longer young, 
so we say, I would accompany you, if I could, or if I were able, 
implying that I am no longer able, though I might have been able at 
B,past time. 

The classical reader will remember that the use of past tenses to 
express hypothetical propositions is not peculiar to the Enghsh lan- 
guage. The Latin language adopts past forms for the same purpose. 
The Greek has a peculiar mode which is employed to express the hypo- 
thetical accessory, but which shows its connection with past tense 
forms by its inflexions, and which is preceded by a past tense in the 
main proposition. But, in fact, it is in the nature of the principal 
proposition, and not in the accessory of hypotheticals, that we must 
seek for the cause of the use of past tenses. The tense of the accessory 
is determined here by the tense of the principal proposition. The 
above observations may help to account for the use of past forms in 
hypothetical propositions, and, at the same time, for the fact that 
■would^ should^ mighty could, and were, which constantly occur in hypo- 
theticals, are so often apparently indefinite as regards time. This in- 
definite use has, no doubt, extended beyond the limits of absolutely 
hypothetical propositions. These forms are used sometimes to express 



160 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 64. 

an assertion in a softened or mitigated form, through politeness or 
through modesty on the part of the speaker. Itoould rather not ao- 
company you. This is less blunt than to say, / will not accompany you. 
I would desire ahcays to do what is right. This is more modest than 
to assert positively, I desire always to do lohat is right. Often these 
past forms are used because there is, in fact, a hypothetical accessory 
implied. Perhaps there is one implied in the examples above. Iicould 
rather (if you allow me to choose) not accompany you. I would desire 
{if I understand myself) always to do what is right. 

§ 64. Remarks on the Forms of Conjugation presented in the Synoptical 
Table. {See j)p. 152, 153.) 

There is an apparent contradiction of terms in the name perfected progres- 
sion, given to the form, / haxe been writing. The reader, in order to account 
for this, will remark, that the term perfected applies to the whole predicate, 
having been writing, especially to the condition of the action as expressed by 
the words have been, and progression only to that part of the predicate ex- 
pressed by the word ivritiiig. The being writing — that is, the act of being 
engaged in writing — is expressed by means of have, as completed, finished, per- 
fected; but not so the writing itself This is not, by the form of expression, 
declared to be completed. In the form, I have written, on the contrary, both 
the writing itself, and the being engaged in writing are declared finished, 
co7npleted. The learner will, therefore, please remember, that in the above 
noticed form, the term progression applies only to the part of the predicate 
over which it directly stands, and which is in similar type; viz., the part 
expressed by the progressive participle (or i-ather noun), and not to the 
whole predicate taken together. 

Some remarks seem necessary in reference to what are called in the Synop- 
tical Table, the progressive tenses of the passive foi-m, namely, is building, 
was building, &q. ; or, with a subject noun, the hottse is building, the house 
was buildifig, &c. This tense, it will be noticed, is exactly the same in the 
active and passive forms. The only difference is in the subjects, and a modi- 
fication of which one of them, and not the other, is susceptible. The active 
form has the builder for its subject, and takes the name of the building after 
it to complete the predicate ; but, in the passive, the building itself is the 
subject, and no objective modification can be applied to the pi-edicate. TTie 
architect is building a house on the hill. A house is building on the hill. 
The word building is employed (apparently) actively in the one case and 
passively in the other. Hence some grammarians have classed the imperfect 
or progressive participle both among what they call the active and the pas- 
sive participles. The word is certainly, whatever we may call it, employed 
in constructing both active and passive progressive forms. This ambiguous 
use has been regarded as a blemish in our language. To remedy the evil 
roany writers and speakers have, since the commencement of the present 



§ 64 J REMARKS ON THE SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 151 

centmy, adopted a substitute for the passive progressive form exhibited in 
the table. The substitute is likely enough, from present appearances, to 
obtain currency, though hitherto (we think) it has been avoided by authors 
of the most approved taste, has received no encouragement from the more 
respectable grammarians, and is in itself an awkward, clumsy, and, according 
to our notion, barbarous form of expression. This innovation consists in 
substituting for the forms of expression, The house is building, &c., the form 
The house is being built, The house was being built, &c. 

If our method of analysis is correct, a new objection will arise to this in- 
novation. The predicate in the form TJie house is being built would be, 
according to our view, being being built, which is manifestly an absurd tau- 
tology. 

We have insinuated, once and again, a doubt whether this word in ing, 
employed in the progressive tenses, is a participle, as all grammarians seem 
to take for granted. It is time that we should plainly say, that we think 
that the progressive passive especially, is not compounded with the imperfect 
participle, but with the verbal noun in ing, which Mr. Taylor has triumph- 
antly proved to be a form entirely independent of the participle. The ori- 
ginal form of expression used by our forefathers, from which the present 
passive progressive has grown, was, it seems to us, not the house is building, 
but the house is a building ; a here being a preposition contracted from on 
and i7i. (See § 81 : 8.) In Anglo-Saxon on had the same signification with 
our IN. In seems to have been at first only a form of on. 

We submit a few examples of this old mode of construction, from which 
we suspect that the passive progressive form is derived by a suppression of 
the preposition. " While the ark was a preparing" — 1 Pet. 3 : 20. Compare 
with this, " While his humble grave is preparing." — Blair. We are indebted 
to Mr. Taylor (see additional notes to Diversions of Pur ley, p. 48) for a num- 
ber of examples in which the preposition in appears without contraction. 
"While these sentences are in reading." — Com. Service. " Whiles that is in 
singing." — Coronation of Henry VII. " While the flesh xoas in seething." — 
1 Sam. 2: 13. The modern way of expressing all these propositions is by 
dropping the preposition, and then we have the passive progressive. While 
the sentences are reading, Wliile the flesh is seething, &c. Or, according to 
the still more modern innovation. While these sentences are being sung, &c. 

We do not assert it as a positive fact, but we repeat again our strong 
suspicion that the passive progressive has originated fi^om these more ancient 
forms of expression, and that the word in ing, found in it, is not a verbal 
adjective (a participle) but a verbal noun. This view, if adopted, disposes of 
the argument employed by tho^e who favor the innovation which we have 
been considering, that it is an abuse of language to employ the same parti- 
ciple both actively and passively. Still, we admit, the ambiguity which arises 
from the use of the same form to express predicates so different in sense re- 
mains. But, before we attend to it, we may further remark, that we are 



152 



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154 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§»64. 

inclined to think that the active progressive form also has a similar origin, 
and that the word in ing here, as in the other case, is the verbal noun, 
and not (as seems to be tacitly admitted by the grammarians) the participle. 
"We believe that this tense form, as it is now considered, has arisen from the 
frequent combination of the verbal with the tenses of the verb to he as a 
noun and preposition modification. (See § 81 : 18.) The preposition here used 
was also a, which, as in the other case, has been retrenched in the language 
of books, and of the educated classes. The use of the preposition still lin- 
gers with the uneducated classes, among whom we may often trace the 
origin, and find the explanation of forms of speech, when it might be difl&- 
cult to discover any light by researches in our written literature. There is 
nothing more common at the present day among the less educated, than to 
say I atn a coming, I am a going, I am a thinking. He is a staying with his 
friends, &c. By way of illustration we give an extract from Bulwer's "My 
Novel, or Varieties of English Life," which, we believe, represents fairly the 
dialect of the uneducated classes (at least, so far as regards the expression in 
question), not in a single locality alone, but in most places where the EngHsh 
language is spoken. 

" 'The gallus!' answered Solomons — " he he a goin to have it hung from 
the great elm tree. And the Parson, good man, is a guotin Scripter agin 
it — you see he's a takin off his gloves, and a puttin his two hans to- 
gether,'" &c. 

In this form of expression, used by that class with which the genuine 
idiomatic constructions of a language remain generally longest, and often 
least adulterated, we think, we discover the origin of what is called the active 
progressive tense. If our conjecture is right, the active and passive forms 
have come to coincide, not by our ancestors' rudely usurping the same parti- 
ciple passively which was already used actively, but by taking after th« tenses 
of the verb to he a modification, consisting of a preposition and verbal noun, 
for two distinct purposes. The coincidence of the two forms seems to have been 
perfectly accidental, and not the result of violently straining a form of speech 
from its established and legitimate use to a new, and very dissimilar, if not 
opposite, use. The whole ambiguity, if this explanation is admitted, arises 
from the fact that the verbals in ing are employed to express both an action 
and a condition. Building, for example, expresses both the action of the 
huilder and the condition of the house, while the builder is erecting it. 

After all we have said, the ambiguity still remains, whatever way we 
choose to explain the origin of these tense forms. But in any case, in which 
the passive progressive is ever employed, the ambiguity disappears when the 
proposition is completed. It is only the partial predicate consisting of the 
verb to he, and the verbal in ing which presents ambiguity. "When the sub- 
ject of the proposition is presented, or the objective modification necessary 
to the active form, there is no more uncertainty in reference to the sense. 
The architect is huilding a house, can never be mistaken for a passive form, 



§ 64.] REMARKS ON THE SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 155 

nor The house is building, for an active form ; because a house cannot perform 
the action of building. The same may be said of the Ma7i is writing a let- 
ter, and The letter is writing. And so, of all cases in which any one who 
understands the language would think of employing the passive progressive 
tenses. Whenever the same word might serve as subject noun both of the 
active and passive form of a verb, it becomes improper to employ the pas- 
sive progressive forms exhibited in the table. It would not, for example, be 
allowable to use the expression. The m.an is killing, in a passive sense, because 
the same subject may serve for the active form. Here the new passive pro- 
gressive has the advantage. The expression, The man is being killed, does 
not lie exposed to the same objection. ^ 

If a less objectionable form of expression had been invented, as a substitute 
for the old form, we should have accepted it thankfully, as removing even the 
appearance of ambiguity, and extending the use of the passive to cases in 
which the old form cannot, with propriety, be used. But as the matter now 
stands, we think that all who would aim at purity and elegance of diction, 
will eschew all forms of the passive progressive, and in all possible cases express 
their meaning by the active form. Instead of saying, A house is building, or 
A house is being built in stich a street, we should prefer to say. They are 
building, or Somebody is building a house iri such a street, employing the 
pronoun they indeterminately, if the parties building are not known by 
name. When the party who builds is known, it is best for all purposes — 
for securing perspicuity, elegance, vigor, and liveliness of expression — to 
make the name of the pai-ty the subject noun, and use the active form. 

We may here notice, as having connection with this subject, that there is 
a difference in the nature of the actions expressed by verbs and by verbal 
words, which, under certain circumstances, influences the choice of the tense 
form employed in our language. Some actions are, from their nature, incapa- 
ble of indefinite continiiation. They are either momentary in their dura- 
tion, or completed in a limited time, whether longer or shorter. Other ac- 
tions are, on the contrary, in their nature indefinitely continued, or habitual. 
!Now, in the use of the former class, we have often occasion to distinguish 
between action completed and action incomplete ; for example, between 
the sense expressed by The architect built a house, and The architect was 
buildi7tg a house ; The house loas built, and The house was building, or in pro- 
gress of construction. Building, ivriting, reading, ploughi7ig, (fee, and most 
words which express external acts, are of the first class. Those which ex- 
press continuous movements of the mind, or habitual acts, are of the second 
class; as, loving, fearing, hating, &c., and living, dwelling, <fec. Such of these 
latter verbs, as are active, are, very seldom (some of them perhaps never) 
used in the progressive forms active, and none of them, we think, can be 
used with propriety in the progressive form passive. Such as are neuter, 
are more rarely than other verbs employed in the progressive form. The 
reason is, that, the action being in its nature continuous, we find no occasion 



156 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 65. 

to distinguish progressive from completed action, or, rather, that in all forms 
these verbs express an action in its own nature progressive, and requiring 
no grammatical indication of this fact. Wlien I knew that man he loved to 
read poetry and fiction. Here is continuous and progressive action. The 
action of loving, though complete in one sense, is not indicated by this ex- 
pression to be finished ; the contrary is inferred from the nature of the ac- 
tion, which is capable of indefinite continuation in its complete state. The 
proposition expresses a continuous or habitual occupation of the man's mind. 
On the contrary, if we wish to express the continuous occupation or engage- 
ment of a man in building a house, we cannot express it in the same way. 
We must, for example, say, When we knew that man, he was building a house, 
if we intend to express the manner in which he was then occupied, not 
When we knew that man, he hidlt a house. If I wish to express that build- 
ing was his habitual occupation, I can do it by a past tense, He was a builder. 
Observe, also, we can never say passively. The reading of poetry and fiction 
was loving ; we must say was loved. A progressive form passive, is wholly 
unnecessary to this class of verbs. So in regard of neuter verbs, we say, 
He LIVED in the city, when / knew him, because the action is in its own na- 
tm'e continuous. We can here say also. He was living in the city when I 
knew hhn, but the other is the more usual form of expression. 

The facts here noticed account for the coincidence on some occasions of 
our past te7ise with the imperfect tense of other languages. He lived, or He 
dwelt in the country when I knew him, because the living or dwelling is habi- 
tual and not indicated as, finished, would be expressed by the imperfect tense 
in Latin, French, &c. — in all languages which have a proper imperfect tense. 
In the same manner. He loved the reading of poetry, when I was acquainted 
with him, would also be expressed by the imperfect Except in the use of 
this kind of verbs, our past tense never coincides with the imperfect of other 
languages. 

§ 65. Of Defective Verbs. (1) We may here notice a class of 
verbs, which have been called by the grammarians defective., because 
they fail in certain tenses, either simple or compound. We have no- 
ticed the chief of these among the auxiliaries. AVe subjoin a list of 
the whole class. (2) They all fail, or are defective, in the compound 
tenses, because they have neither infinitives nor participles. They 
have, therefore, only the two simple tenses. 



Indefinite. 


Past. 


IndefimAU. 


Past. 


(3) Can, 


Could. 


ShaU, 


Should. 


May, 


Might. 


wm, 


Would. 


Must, 
Ought, {a) 




Wis,(5) 
Wit, (c) 


Wist. 
t Wot. 


~~~~^'~~ 




Quoth, 


Quoth. 


Wot, 



§ 65. (1) Describe the defective verbs. (2) In what tenses do these verbs all fail, and 
for what reason ? (3) Repeat the list of these verbs. 



§ 66,J OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 157 

(a) (4) We have said enough already of can, mo.y, shall, will, in another 
placa Ought was originally the past tense of owe, but is now used indefi- 
nitely as regards time ; as, / ought now to go. When used to express past 
duty or obligation, it is followed by the perfect form of the infinitive — a 
use peculiar to itself ; as, / ought to have gone there yesterday. With other 
verbs, when we do not intend to express the action indicated by the com- 
pleting infinitive, as perfected, finished, we always use the simple infinitive : 
as, / intended to go yesterday. Yesterday I determined to send, <fee. 

(6) This verb is now out of use in the current language. It was formerly 
employed in a sense equivalent to " I think," " I imagine." 

(c) Wit is now only used in the phrase to wit. Both wit and wot are 
found in the translation of the Bible and in our earlier authors. Its mean- 
ing is equivalent to that of the word know. 

§ 66. Of Impeesonal Yeebs. — (1) There remains still another pecu- 
liar kind of verbs to consider ; namely, those commonly called imper- 
sonal^ but sometimes, perhaps more properly, unipersonal verbs. Of 
these verbs there are several distinct classes. 

1st. (2) There are a few verbs, such as, It rains., It snoics, It Jiails^ 
&c., expressing natural phenomena or operations, of which men in 
the early ages did not understand the causes, and of which we could 
not, even in the present improved state of natural science, express 
the causes (which, causes would naturally form the subject nouns of 
the above verbs) by a single term, or in any convenient way ; while 
the phenomena or operations themselves are of common occurrence 
and of general interest, and therefore need to be expressed both sub- 
stantively and assertively. (3) In English, we place before the verbs 
which express such operations the neuter pronoun it, which here 
serves the peculiar function of representing, not a known noun, but a 
cause unknown., or that cannot be conveniently expressed every time 
■we have occasion to express the natural phenomenon assertively. (4) 
These verbs admit of being conjugated, like other verbs, through all 
tenses, but only in the third person singular. 

2d. (5) There is another class of what are commonly called imper- 
sonal verbs, which admit only of a proposition for their subject, and 
are therefore necessarily unipersonal. Only a few of these now re- 
main in our language. (6) We have, though now rarely used. It he- 
hooves or hehooveth., It irks or irketh^ and perhaps some others. (7) 

(4) Repeat what is said of the verB ought. 

§ 66. (1) What kind of verbs remains to be considered, and how more properly named ? 
(2) Describe the first class of these verbs. (3) What word is usually placed before these 
verbs ? Describe the function which it performs in this case. 

(5) Describe another class of impersonal verbs. (6) Give examples. (7) Repeat what 
is said of other verbs employed in the same way. 



158 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 66. 

Many other verbs are employed in the same way, ha\ing a proposition 
for their real subject, and the pronoun it for a substitute subject (see 
§ 103 : 7), but the same verbs, unlike those mentioned above, are also 
employed with nouns both singular and plural, and sometimes with 
pronouns of the first and second persons for their subjects. We mean 
such verbs as. It tecomes^ It suits, &c. These present no difficulty. 
All that is peculiar in them, is the fact that a proposition may serve 
as their subject, and that matter comes under our consideration else- 
where. (See § 103.)* 

3d. (8) There is still another very peculiar class of impersonal 
verbs now obsolete — altogether out of use — but which claim notice, 
because they sometimes occur in our more ancient authors, and pre- 
sent a form of expression which puzzles inexperienced grammarians. 
(9) Those which occur most frequently in authors of the seven- 
teenth century, are methinkSy past tense methought, and meseems. 
The Hst might be much enlarged by having recourse to authors of 
an earlier date. (10) Such forms as melisteth, meliketh, &c., were 
once common. We find "us ought," in Chaucer. (11) Some 
grammarians consider these the only im2oersonal verbs in the lan- 
guage, because they have nothing in the shape of a subject noun^ 
not even the substitute it. But in so doing, they employ the term 
imjyersonal in a peculiar sense of their own, unsanctioned by gene- 
ral use, to mean verbs which have neither a noun for subject, nor a 
substitute pronoun to represent the proposition which serves as their 
real subject. (12) For these verbs are all verbs having a proposi- 



* We may perhaps find in some boyish translations of Latin authors, in- 
stances of the use of another class of impersonals or unipersonals, peculiar 
to the Latin language, viz., the third person singular of neuter verbs, with 
a passive form. The following may serve as an example of the form to which 
we allude. It was fought on both sides with the greatest bravery till the even- 
ing, instead of the battle was continued, or the conflict was maintained, 
&c. This unipersonal form is not likely to be employed by those who really 
understand English. It is imcongenial to our language. 



(8) What claim has the third class of impersonal verbs on our attention ? (9) Name 
the verbs of this kind which occur most frequently in authors of the 17th century. (10) 
Name others which occur in more ancient authors. (11) Repeat what is said of the gram- 
marians who have considered these as the only really impersonal verbs in our language. 
(12) What distinguishes these from other verbs, which have a proposition for their subject ? 



§ 67.] THE ANCIENT CONJUGATION AND CONTRACTED FORMS. 159 

tion for their subject, and are like other verbs of the same kind, 
save that they are not preceded by the substitute subject it. (13) 
In this they resemble verbs in other languages, which employ no 
word equivalent to it with a verb having a proposition for subject.* 
(14) The pronouns which in this form precede the imperscmal verh^ 
me for example in methinks, are real datives. See further explana- 
tion of these forms when we come to treat of the dative modifica- 
tion, § 79 : 18-21. 

§ 67. We subjoin a list of the verbs of the ancient conjugation, with 
the verbs of the modern conjugation, which have contracted preterits. 
This list is intended to include all the verbs of which the past tenses 
and perfect participles do not always end in ed ; or what are (we 
think, improperly) called in most grammars, irregular ve^^hs. We 
might have given a separate list of the contracted forms belonging to 
the modern conjugation, and we might have classified the verbs of the 
ancient conjugation in reference to the different ways in which their 
preterits and participles are formed from the root. Had we done so, 
we must have presented several distinct lists, and this would have ren- 
dered our tables less convenient for the purpose of reference in cases 
of doubt. Instead of presenting separate lists, we mark with con. 
(=z contracted) those words which are manifestly contracted from a 
modern form, leaving all about which there is room for doubt to be 
accounted as of the ancient conjugation ; and we subjoin notes where 
we think any additional remark necessary. 

When a verb has a preterit or participle of the regular modern 
form in use, besides the ancient or the contracted form exhibited in 
the list, we indicate this fact by placing -d or -ed after the form in the 
list. This -d or -ed is to be added to the root. The forms printed in 
italics are either out of use, or seldom used, or not used by reputable 
authors, and therefore to be avoided. In the column for perfect par- 



* The employment of the pronoun it before this class of verbs, seems to 
have orginated from the loss of the personal terminations, which once distin- 
guished our verbs. A pronoun became absolutely necessary in cases where 
the subject noun was not expressed to distinguish the person intended. The 
use of pronouns for this purpose being once generally introduced, extended 
naturally to cases like this, where they are not absolutely necessary ; for 
here the subject is expressed, though by a proposition, and after the verb. 

(13) Repeat what is said of their resemblance to impersonal verbs in other languages. (14) 
What is said respecting the pronouns which precede these verbs ? 



160 



STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. 



BST. 



ticiples, we give all those -wMcli differ from the past tense in form, 
omitting those which coincide in form with that tense. "We have 
occasionally used the mark of interrogation (?) to indicate a form, in 
our opinion, questionable. 



LIST OF VEEBS OE THE ANCIENT CONJUGATION, WITH THOSE OF THE 
MODEEN CONJUGATION WHICH HAVE THE PAST TENSE OONTEAOTED. 



Indefinite Form. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. Participle. 


Abide 




Abode 




Am 




Was 


Been 


Arise 




Arose 


Arisen 


Awake 




Awoke, -d 


Awaked 


Bake 




Baked 


Baked, Bahen 


Bear, to 


bring forth 


Bore, Bare 


Born 


Bear, to 


carry 


Bore, Bare 


Borne 


Beat 




Beat 


Beaten, Beat 


Begin 




Began 


Begun 


Behold 




Beheld 


Beheld, Beholden (a) 


Bend 




Bent con., -ed 




Bereave 




Bereft con., -d 




Beseech 




Besought 


(See remark at the end of List) 


Bid 




Bade or Bid 


Bidden, Bid 


Bind 




Bound 




Bite 




Bit 


Bitten, Bit 


Bleed 




Bled con. ? 




Blend 




Blent con., -ed (6) 




Blow 




Blew 


Blown 


Break 




Broke, Brake, 


Broken, Broke (c) 


Breed 




Bred, con. ? 




Bring 




Brought 


(See remark.) 


BuUd 




Built con., -ed 




Burn 




Burnt con., -ed 




Burst 




Burst 




Buy 




Bought 


(See remark.) 


Can 




Could 


'No participle. 


Cast 




Cast con., -ed {d) 




Catch 




Caught, -ed 


(See remark.) 


Chide 




Chid, Chode (e) 


Chid, Chidden 


Choose 




Chose 


Chosen 


Cleave, to split 


Cleft, Clave {f) 


Cleft, Cloven 


Cleave, to adhere 


-d. Clave {g) 


-d 


Cling 




Clung 




Climb 




-ed, Clomh (h) 


-ed 



§67.] 



VERBS OF THE ANCIENT CONJUGATION, ETC. 



161 



Indejmite Form. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. Participle. 


Clothe 


-d, Clad 


-d, Clad (i) 


Come 


Came 


Come 


Cost 


Cost con. 




Creep 


Crept con. 




Crow 


Crew, -ed 


-ed. 


Cut 


Cut con. 




Dare, to venture {j) 


Durst, -d 


-d. 


Deal 


Dealt C071., -ed ? 




Dig 


Dug, -ged 




Do 


Did 


Done 


Draw 


Drew 


Drawn 


Dream 


-ed, Dreamt cow. 




Drink 


Drank, Drunk 


Drunk, DrunJcen (k) 


Drive 


Drove 


Driven 


Dwell 


-ed. Dwelt con. 




Eat 


Ate, Eat 


Eaten 


FaU 


Fell 


Fallen 


Feed 


Fed con. 




Feel 


Felt con. 




Fight 


Fought 




Find 


Found 




Flee 


Fled con. 




Fling 


Flung 




Fly 


Flew 


Flown 


Forbear 


Forbore 


Forborne 


Forget 


Forgot 


Forgotten, Forgot 


Forsake 


Forsook 


Forsaken 


Freeze 


Froze 


Frozen 


Get 


Got, Gat 


Got, Gotten 


Gild 


Gilt con., -ed 




Gird 


Girt con.y -ed 




Give 


Gave 


Given 


Go 


Went 


Gone 


Grave 


Graved 


-ed, Graven 


Grind 


Ground 




Grow 


Grew 


Grown 


Hang 


Hung, -ed (l) 




Have 


Had con. 




Hear 


Heard con. 




Heave 


-d, Hove 




Help 


-ed 


-ed, Holpen 


Hew 


-ed 


-ed, Hewn 


Hide 


Hid 


Hidden, Hid 


U 







162 



STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. 



[§6' 



IndsJiniU 


Form. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. PaHiciple. 


Hit 




Hit con. 




Hold 




Held 


Held, Holden 


Hurt 




Hurt con. 




Keep 




Kept con 




Kneel 




Knelt con., -ed? 




Knit 




Knit con., -ed 




Know 




Knew 


Known 


Lade 




-ed 


-ed, Laden 


Lay, to 


place, (act.) 


Laid con. 




Lead 




Led con. ? 




Lean 




-ed. Leant con. 




Leave 




Left con. 




Lend 




Lent con. 




Let 




Let 




Lie, to recline, (neiit.) Laj 


Lain, Lien (m) 


Light 




-ed, Lit con. ? 




Load 




-ed 


-ed, Loaden 


Lose 




Lost con. 




Make 




Made 




May 




Might 


K'o participle. 


Mean 




Meant con., -ed. ? 




Meet 




Met con. 




Melt 




-ed 


-ed,Molten 


Mow 




-ed 


-ed. Mown 


Pay 




Paid con., -ed? 




Pen, to enclose 


Penned, Pent con. 




Put 




Put con. 




Quit 




Quitted, Quit con. 




Rap, to 


transport 


Rapped 


Rapped, Rapt i 


Read 




Read {sounded red) 




Reave, 


to rob 


Reft co?i., -ed? 




Rend 




Rent con. 




Rid 




Rid con. 




Ride 




Rode, Rid? 


Ridden, Hid 


Ring 




Rang, rung 


Rung 


Rise 




Rose 


Risen 


Rive 




-d 


Riven, -d? 


Rot 




Rotted 


Rotten, -ed 


Run 




Ran 


Run 


Saw- 




-ed 


-ed. Sawn 


Say 




Said con. 




See 




Saw 


Seen 


Seek 




- Sought 


(See Remark.) 



§6^-] 



VERBS OF THE ANCIENT CONJUGATION, ETC. 



163 



Indefinite Form. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. Participle. 


Seethe 


-d, sod 


-ed, Sodden 


Sell 


Sold 




Send 


Sent con. 




Set 


Set 




Shake 


Shook 


Shaken 


ShaU 


Should 


No participle. 


Shape 


-d 


-d, Shapen 


Shave 


-d 


-d. Shaven 


Shear 


-ed, Shore 


-ed, Shorn 


Shed 


Shed con. 




Shine 


Shone, -d 




Shoe 


Shod con. 




Shoot 


Shot con ? 


Shot, Shotten 


Show or shew 


-ed 


-ed. Shown 


Shrink 


Shrunk, Shrank 


Shrunk, Shrwiken 


Shred 


Shred con. 




Shut 


Shut con. 




Sing 


Sung, Sang 


Sung 


Sink 


Sank, Sunk 


Sunk, Sunken (n) 


Sit 


Sat, Sate 


Sat, Siften 


Slay 


Slew 


Slain 


Sleep 


Slept con. 




Slide 


Slid con. ? 


Slid, Slidden 


Sling 


Slung, Slang 




Slink 


Slunk 




Slit 


Slit con. 


Slit, Slitted? 


Smite 


Smote 


Smitten, Smit 


Sow 


-ed 


Sown, -ed 


Speak 


Spoke, Spake 


Spoken, Spoke? 


Speed 


Sped con. 




SpeH 


Spelt con., -ed 




Spend 


Spent 




Spill 


-ed. Spilt con. 




Spin 


Spun, Span 


Spun 


Spit 


Spit, Spat, -ed ? 


Spit, Spitten -ed 


Split 


Split con. 




Spread 


Spread con. 




Spring 


Sprung, Sprang 


Sprung 


Stand 


Stood 




Stay 


Staid con., ed ? 




Steal 


Stole 


Stolen 


Stick 


Stuck 




Sting 


Stung 





164 



STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. 



[§67. 



Indefinite Form. 


Past Teme. 


Perf. ParticipU. 


Stride 


Strode, Strid 


Stridden 


Strike 


Struck, StrooTc 


Struck, Stricken 


String 


Strung, -ed 




Strive 


Strove, -d? 


Striven, -ed? 


Strow or strew 


-ed 


-ed, Strown 


Swear 


Swore, Sware 


Sworn 


Sweat 


Sweat, -ed, Swet 


-ed, Sweaten 


Sweep 


Swept con. 




SweH 


-ed 


-ed. Swollen 


Swim 


Swam, Swum 


Swum 


Swing 


Swung 




Take 


Took 


Taken 


Teach 


Taught 


(See remark.) 


Tear 


Tore, Tare 


Torn 


TeU 


Told 




Thinlr 


Thought 


(See remark.) 


Thrive 


Throve, -d 


Thriven, -ed 


Throw 


Threw 


Thrown 


Thrust 


Thrust con. 




Ti-ead 


Trod, Trode ? 


Trodden, Trod 


Wake 


Woke, -d 


-d 


Wax 


-ed 


Waxen, -ed 


Wear 


Wore 


Worn 


Weave 


Wove, -d 


Woven, Wove 


Weep 


Wept con. 




Wet 


Wet con., -ed 




Whet 


Whet con., -ed 




WiU 


Would 


No participle. 


Win 


Won, Wan 


Won 


Wind 


Wound 




Work 


-ed. Wrought, 


(See remark.) 


Wring 


Wrung, -ed 


Wrung 


Write 


Wrote, Writ 


Written 



NOTES AND KEHAKKS ON THE LIST OF VERBS. 

(a) Beholden is used in a different sense. It means indebted, obligated, 
"Little are we beholden to your love." — Shak. This form, we think, is sel- 
dom employed in the current Enghsh of the present day. 

(6) "In one red burial blent," — Byron, as quoted by Mr, D'Orsey, to 
whom we are indebted for many of the examples introduced in these 
notes. 

(c) "The deer is broke." — Scott. 



§ 67.] VERBS OF THE ANCIENT CONJUGATION, ETC. 165 

{d) "Thou castedst them down into destruction."— Ps. 73 : 18. 

(e) " Jacob chode with Laban." — Gen. 31 : 36. 

(/) "The ground clave asunder." — Numb, 16: 31. 

{g) "Certain men clave unto him," &c. — Acts 17 : 34 

(h) "So clomb this first grand thief into God's fold." — Milt. 

(i) "Was clad with zeal." — Is. 59: 17. 

(j) Dare to challenge has always the form of the mod. conjugation dared. 

(k) Drunken is most generally used adjectively. It was formerly some- 
times used to form compound tenses. "Thou hast drunken the dregs," &c. — 
Is. 61: 17. 

(1) There is, perhaps, a tendency in the use of this verb to prefer the form 
in ed. In speaking of suspension for the purpose of taking life, we now al- 
ways use the form in ed, both as past tense and participle, 

(m) The form lien is found in the early editions of the authorized version. 
It may be found in the current editions in Gen. 26 : 10. In other instances 
it has been replaced by lain. "We suspect that lain is to be traced to a 
modern innovation — a change of fashion — in pronunciation (perhaps having 
some connection with the confusion of this verb with lay), which has come 
to be represented in the written form of the language. In Tyndale, Cran- 
mer, and the Geneva version, the word is written lyne. These old forms 
retain the vowel sound of the root, which is not the case with lain. 

(n) Sunken is still sometimes used adjectively. 

Eemaek. — (1) There are some verbs in the above list which 
neither belong properly to the ancient conjugation, nor are they con- 
tracted forms of the second. They, in fact, partake apparently of the 
character of both conjugations, since there is both a change of the 
vowel sound, and a t added in the formation. They really belong to 
the modern conjugation, and have been placed here because they differ 
from the usual forms of that conjugation, though they are not, pro- 
perly speaking, contracted forms. We enumerate the chief of these 
verbs : deseech, iesought ; bring, drought ; duy, tought ; catc\ caught ; 
seek, sought; teach, taught ; think, thought. To these we may add 
work, wrought, in which there is, besides the peculiarity common to 
the rest, a transposition. 

EeMAEKS on THE VeEBS OP THE AnOIENT CONJUGATION. In 

verbs of the ancient conjugation there is, as we have before observed, 
generally a change of the vowel sound. The changes which take 
place are chiefly the following : 

1. (2) A few verbs of this conjugation form preterits by changing 
into e. In most of these the o is followed by w, as T)low, Mew ; crow, 

§ 67. (1) Eepeat the substance of the first remark, and name the verbs to whicli it ap- 



166 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 6Y. 

crew^ &c. In. like manner, Tiold'oiiA its componnds make Jield. Fall^ 
fel\ and droAc^ drew^ having a vowel sound approaching that of c, 
may come within this class. Slay smdjli/ have preterits similar to the 
verbs in oic^ viz., sleio andjlew. 

2. (3) The preterits of many verbs of this conjugation are formed 
by changing ea of the root into long o. Some of these have a second 
form in a. Example, spealc^ siDolce^ spaTce ; tear^ lore^ 'bare. 

3. (4) A few preterits are formed by changing a long into oo as, 
i«Z,'e, took, and its componnds. We may place here also stand^ stood. 
Others change a long into o long, as, aicaJce^ awolce. 

4. (5) The preterits of many verbs are formed by changing i long 
into long, as rise rose^ &c. 

5. (6) /short is usually changed into a short; as, swim.^ swam; sit., 
sat., (fee. The short i in give is changed into the long sound of «, gate. 
Many of the verbs have a second form in u ; as, swim.^ swam., and 
swum; sing., sang., and sung. This second form seems to owe its 
origin to the fact that in Anglo-Saxon preterits, the vowel was often 
changed in forming the plural persons, and the second person singular ; 
for example, they said in the singular, Ic sang., I sung ; and in the 
plural, we sungon., we sung. In our language we have, in some in- 
stances, retained both forms, but use them indiscriminately, either as 
singular or as plural. 

!N"early aU the verbs of the ancient conjugation come within one 
or other of these classes. Get., got ; hite., Mt ; beat., which is the same 
in the preterit, and perhaps a few other sohtary forms, do not admit 
of classification. 

(7) When the perfect participle has a form distinct from the past 
tense, it most generally consists of en or n added, sometimes, to the 
root, sometimes to the preterit form. This seems to have been the 
usual termination of the perfect participles of verbs of the ancient 
conjugation in Anglo-Saxon. 

EEilAEKS ox THE CoXTEACTED MoDEEX PeETEEITS. — (8) TllCSe 

forms are generally easily accounted for, by a reference to the princi- 
ples which govern the combination of sounds in language. (See 
§§ 40 and 41.) 

1. (9) In a number of the words which we have marked contracted, 
there is rather a total defect of inflexion than contraction. This is 

plies. (2) Describe the first class of the verbs of the ancient conjugation. (3) The second 
class of these verbs. (4) The third class. (5) The fourth class. (6) The fifth class ; and 
tell how the second form of their preterits is accounted for. (7) Eepeat the remark on the 
perfect participle of these verbs. 

(8) "Wliat is said of the contracted modern preterits ? (9) Describe the first class and 



§ 67.] REMARKS ON THE LIST OF VERBS. 167 

occasioned by the fact that tlie root ends in a <^ or ^ sound. To this 
no second d or t sound could be added without lengthening the 
word by one syllable. To this lengthening (though contrary to the 
natural tendency of our language to curtailment) we have submitted 
in some cases; for example, in add, added ; print, printed, &c. ; but, in 
other cases, rather than add a syllable, we have dispensed altogether 
with the inflexion peculiar to the preterit ; for example, in cut, cost, 
hit, &c. (10) Sometimes a final d is changed into t in the preterit ; as 
in hend, dent ; spend, spent, &c. Sometimes the syllable is shortened 
in the preterit for the sake of distinction, as in Meed, Med ; feed, fed ; 
read, read ; the root is pronunced long, the preterit short as if writ- 
ten red. 

2. (11) Another class of these contracted forms has merely a t 
substituted for a 6? in their preterits, in accordance with the principle 
explained in § 40. In these the e which precedes the d in the usual 
inflexion is omitted, and the t is joined to the final consonant of the 
root ; the vowel sound of the root is also usually shortened, because 
followed now by two consonants. Examples, dream, dreamt ; sleep, 
slept ; deal, dealt, &c. The verb cleave, which would naturally coa- 
lesce with the d sound, exchanges its v for an/, and takes t like the 
rest of these contracts ; cleave, cleft. 

This last class is not to be considered irregular, since nothing has 
happened to them, except what follows necessarily from the laws 
which govern the utterance of sounds. The only really anomalous 
class of these verbs of the modern conjugation, is that considered under 
our first remark, viz., 'beseech, besought; catch, caught, &c. ; and even 
the preterits of these are not so capriciously formed, as might seem at 
first sight. See more on this subject in Latham's English Language, 
from which we have borrowed largely in the preceding remarks. 

The learner may be questioned in the usual way upon the list given 
above, asking him to tell the preterit and participle of each verb separately. 
A much more effectual way of learning these verbs thoroughly, is to write 
lists of the distinct classes in the manner which we prescribe below in the 
exercises. 

Exercises L, II., III., &c. — Form a complete enumeration from the 
fist of all the verbs of the ancient conjugation, coming under class 
1, 2, 3, &c., and afterwards the same with the contracted forms of the 



give examples, (10) What changes in sound do some of these undergo without receiving 
any additional inflexion ? Give examples. (11) Describe the second class. Show how 
their preterits are formed, and give examples. 



168 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 6*^* 

modern conjugation. Eacli class to be described, and then the enu- 
meration written after the model of the hst — roots, preterits and par- 
ticiples. 

Then follows a course of exercises in forming propositions with cer- 
tain prescribed tenses of a prescribed number of the verbs from the list. 
By this plan the learner may be made as familiar as we please with 
these verbs, while he is acquiring practice in the formation of propo- 
sitions, and in the use of the tenses. Let him be especially enjoined to 
form propositions with the diiierent tenses of those verbs in which he 
is most likely to make mistakes ; such as come^ do^ drinlc^ go^ lay, lie, 
see, sit, write, &c. These exercises to be extended according to the 
wants of the pupil. 



CHAPTER IV. 

MODIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT A]^D PEE- 
DICATE BY NOUNS. 

§ 68. (1) Hitlierto we have treated of such modifications of the 
subjects and predicates of propositions as are effected by a change 
of the form of the subject noun, or of the verb ; namely, the change 
of the form of the noun, intended to indicate plurality, and the 
changes of the form of the verb, intended to indicate plurality, per- 
son, time, and mode. (2) We now proceed to consider the 

Modifications of the Subject Noun and Verb effected 

BY the employment OF COMPLEMENTARY OR MODIFYING WoRDS. 

(3) Before we introduce any new class of words employed for 
the purpose of modification, we intend to consider the several modi- 
fications of both subject and predicate, effected by the instrumen- 
tality of one of the the two classes of words already familiar to the 
learner — we mean by the instrumentality of nouns. (4) The words 
belonging to the class of verbs never perform this kind of function. 
(5) According to the definition we have adopted, verbs are always 
assertive, and can never alone — or, except as forming the assertive 
part of an accessor?/ proposition — modify other words. 

(6) JSTouns are employed in three distinct ways to modify other 
words ; namely, 1st. Without any change of their form, except what 
they undergo when used as subject nouns ; 2d. With an inflected 
form, distinct from that employed as subject noun ; And, 3d. Accom- 



§ 68. (1) Mention the kind of modifications heretofore treated. (2) What kind do we 
now propose to consider ? 

(3) What special class of these modifications comes first under notice ? (4) Do verbs 
ever perform the function of modifying other words ? (5) Tell why they are not employed 
alone for the purpose of modification ? 

(6) Mention the three distinct ways in which nouns are employed for the purpose of 



170 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§69. 

paiiied by a word whicli serves as an intermediate to the comple- 
mentary noun and the word which it completes, and forms an essen- 
tial part of the complement. (1) Each of these classes of comple- 
ments formed by nouns we shall treat separately. (8) And, first, the 

Modifications effected by the employment of the Noun 

IN the same forms SINGULAR AND PLURAL AS WHEN IT SERVES 

AS Subject Noun of a Proposition. 

(9) Remark. — For convenience sake we may call the noun mo- 
dified the principal noun. 

§ 69. (1) The Noun in Apposition Modification or Com- 
plement. (2) This form of modification is restricted to iiouns, 
or to words or phrases taken substantive!]/. It is never applied 
to verbs. (3) It consists of another noun apposed — that is, placed 
to or b]/ — the principal noun. (4) The nou7i in apposition usu- 
ally expresses some attribute — something descriptive — or some 
appellation of that which is signified by the principal noun. (5) It 
is the addition of another name applicable to the object designated 
by the p)rinci2')al noun^ generally for the purpose of rendering the 
expression more clear and definite, but sometimes merely for the 
purpose of ornament or of emphasis. Example : (6) William^ the 
farmer, is an honest man. Here the noun farmer is apposed, or 
placed by the noun William, to render the subject of the assertion 
more clear and definite. (7) This api^osition indicates that the 
subject of our assertion, in the present instance, is not any man 
whatever called William, but the particular person to whom both 
the name William and the name farmer are applicable — the man 
known to the person whom we address as, The farmer. 

[(8) This modification is most frequently, though not exclusively, 
applied to the proper names of persons and places. (9) It is applied 
to nouns, whether they serve as subject noun of a proposition, or are 
employed in any of the functions to be hereafter described. (10) Per- 

modifying words. (7) How is it proposed to treat these several forms of modification? (8) 
Which special division is considered first? (9) Repeat remark. 

§ 69. (1) What name is given to the modification first treated ? (2) To what class of words 
is this modification restricted ? (3) Of what docs it consist? (4) What does it express.? 
(5) State the additional explanation. (6) Give example, tmd point out the apposiUon. 
(7) What does the apposiUon complement in this case indicate ? 

[(8) To what class of nouns is this modification most frequently applied ? (9) Is it ap- 
plied only to nouns employed as subjects of propositions, or to nouns whatever may be their 



§ 69.] OF APPOSITION. 171 

haps the only exception is, that it would be improper, or at least inele- 
gant, to modify a noun itself placed in apposition by another noun in 
apposition^ thus adding apposition to appositio7i.] 

(11) The noun in apposition is most generally, though not 
always, placed after the noun which it modifies. In such expres- 
sions as My brother William, General Washington^ &c., the 
nouns brother and general are the modifying nouns, and precede the 
nouns with which they stand in apposition.^' 

[(12) In languages which have case terminations, the noun in appo- 
sition must be in the same case with the principal noun. (13) In Eng- 
lish it does not always take the case termination of the principal noun^ 
as will be seen hereafter. (See § 75 : 26, 27.)t 



* It may be doubted whether in such examples as General Washington, 
Queen Victoria, <fec., the modifying word should not be called a noun adjec- 
tively employed. There is often not much difference between the two forms 
of modification ; but the noun employed adjectively, as we shall see, can 
generally be resolved into some other form of modification, made by the 
case of a noun, or by a noun and preposition, from which modification it is 
contracted ; but the noun in apposition can be resolved into no other form 
but that of an adjective accessory proposition ; and in this, such modifications 
as general, in the expression General Washington, are like other nouns in 
apposition. The word general cannot be resolved into a genitive case modi- 
fication, a noun and preposition modification, an adjective modfication, &,q., 
but only into a modification formed by an accessory proposition, as Wash- 
ington, who was general. 

f It may be here observed, that this species of modification effects veiy 
nearly the same purpose which is effected by an adjective modification. The 
noun in apposition is necessarily a cmnmon no^m or name of a class, and not 
only denotes objects of its kind, but at the same time connotes (as the logi- 
cians say) the distinguishing qualities and characteristics of the class. Hence, 
when placed in apposition with another noun, it serves to indicate the pres- 
ence of these connoted qualities or characteristics. For example, when I use 
the expression, Plato, the philosopher, the noun in apposition, philosopher, 
indicates that the Plato intended was the one who possessed the characteris- 
tics, properties, attributes of a philosopher — the person distinguished from 
all others of the name, by the possession of these attributes, &c. It would 
be incorrect, however, to say that the noun thus used becomes an ad- 
jective. 

function ? (10) Is there any exception ?] (11) Where is the noun in apposition placed ? 
[(12) What is said of the noun in apposition in languages which have case terminations ? 
(13) In English does it always take the case termination of the principal noun ?] (14) What 



172 



STRUCTURE OF LANGUAQE. [§ 69. 



(15) A noun in apposition is sometimes employed to modify aprop- 
osition (or perhaps rather in many cases, to represent a proposition), 
and, on the other hand, 2. proposition is sometimes placed in apposi- 
tion with a noun to modify or explain it. This might be expected, 
since propositions often perform the functions of nouns, or, to use the 
current language of our grammars, are used substantively. (16) As 
example of a noun in apposition with a proposition, take the follow- 
ing : To BE GOOD IS TO BE HAPPY— TEUTH uever to le forgotten ly 
those commencing the journey of Ufe. (17) In this example (as indeed 
in every instance of apposition, and perhaps in the use of every form 
of modification or complement employed with a noun), there is a sup- 
pressed predication, a tacit assumption of the assertion, that to le good 
is to he happy^ is a truth never to le forgotten^ &c. (18) We have an 
example of a proposition used as an apposition modification in the fol- 
lowing 'sentence : The apology, often pleaded ly the slaves of vicious 
habits^ THAT THEIR VICES mJiiEE NONE BUT THEMSELVES, IS generally 
inconsistent with truths and even if strictly consistent with truth in 
some cases., is no adequate justification of their conduct. Here the 
proposition, " Their vices injure none but themselves," is placed in 
apposition with the noun " apology," and serves to explain it. 

(19) It is unnecessary to observe that infinitives (alone, or with 
their accompanying modifications or complements) are often used as 
apposition modifications, since we consider infinitives as a peculiar 
class of nouns. 

(20) A noun is often repeated (with, or without accompanying 
modification), for the purpose of emphasis, and thus placed in a sort 
of apposition with itself. (21) This occurs chiefiy, though not exclu- 
sively, when the noun is used in what is called the case of address. 
(See § 99: 9.) (22) For example: "0 Jerusalem, Jerusalem, which 
killest the prophets," &c. " My people have hewed out cisterns, IroTcen 
cisterns^^'' &c. (23) We should in practical analysis rather call this 
Emphatic Repetition. 

(24) " A plural term is sometimes used in apposition after two or 

is meant by the terms principal noun f Ans. The nov/n which is modified by the nomi 
placed in apposition. 

(15) Mention a purpose for which a nonn in apposition is sometimes employed. (16) 
Give the example. (17) Eepeat the remark. (18) Give an example of a proposition used 
as an apposition modification ; and point out the words in apposition. 

(19) Eepeat the remark in reference to infinitives. 

(20) What is said of the repetition of a noun ? (21) When does this chiefly occur ? (22) 
Eepeat the example. (23) What would we call this in analysis ? 

(24) Eepeat the remark in reference to the use of a plural term in apposition ; and give 
the example. 



§ 69.] OF APPOSITION. 1*73 

more substantives singular, to combine and give them emphasis ; as, 
" Time^ labor^ money ^ all were lost." 

(25) Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition with a 
plural substantive ; as " TJiey went each of them on his way." In 
the construction of a sentence, the distributive word is sometimes 
omitted. Of this character are such expressions as the following: 
" They stood in each other's way — that is, they stood each in the 
other's way." — {BulUorCs Eng. Oram. sees. 671-673.)* 

(26) An adjective used substantively (that is, with its noun sup- 
pressed), is often employed as dn. apposition modification of a noun ; 
as, Charles the Bold^ Alexander the Great., William the Third, In 
these phrases, there is (perhaps) a suppression of the name after the 
adjective, as Charles the Bold., for Charles, the bold Charles ; or of the 
title of the person; Duke., in the first example, Conqueror., in the 
second, and Tcing of that name in the third. The determinative, or 
article, we suppose, may, in such cases, be regarded as indicating a 
suppressed noun. If not, this must be considered a peculiar use of the 
adjective^ 

(27) In written exercises, the noun in apposition., modification., or 
complement., may be represented by the following contraction: Ap. 
modn.., or Ap. com. In our examples, and in the exercises, we use 
some of the determinative words, as a, the., this., that., &c., which have 
not been yet explained. In analysis, the learner may pass over these 
for the present. 

Model of a "Weitten Exeecise. — Cicero, the orator, flourished, 
&c. Cicero, S. N. mod^d dy orator, iV. Ap. Eead thus — Cicero is 
the subject noun of the proposition, and is modified by orator., a 
noun in apposition. The noun Cicero., thus modified, is the complete 
subject. 

Let the learner point out, or, in a Avritten exercise, underline., the 
apposition complements, in the following examples : 

* In some cases, where a noun in apposition would seem to be the most 
natural mx)dification, we employ a noun with the preposition of ; as, The 
City of Ro7ne, The month of June ; not, The City Rome, The month June, 
as in Latin and German. This usage is confined chiefly to names of towns, 
countries, and months. The French and some other modern languages 
agree nearly with ours in this matter. 

(25) What remark is made in reference to distributive words put in apposition ? 

(26) What is said of an apposition modification formed by an adjective used siibsian- 
tively ? Illustrate by examples.] 

(27) By what contractions may the noun i/)i apposition modification or complement be 
represented in written exercises ? 



174 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 69. 

" The gentle Spenser, fancy's pleasing son." 
" Let Newton, pure intelligence, whom God 

To mortals lent," &c. 
" Ealeigh, the scourge of Spain." 
" Nor can the muse the gallant Sydney pass, 

The plume of war !" 
" His friend, the British Oassius, fearless bled." 
" Nature ! great Parent ! whose unceasing hand." 
" Scipio, the gentle chief." 
" Where art thou Hammond ? thou, the darling pride, 

The friend, and lover of the tuneful throng !" 
" The watery deep, an object strange and new, 

Before me rose." 
" Emblem of peace, the dove before thee flies." 
" A stranger to superior strength, 

Man vainly trusts his own," 
" Thou Sun, of this great world both eye and soul." 
" Come peace of mind, dehghtful guest." 

Exercise I. — Let the learner find ten or more examples of nouns 
placed in apposition. This exercise may be repeated, till this con- 
struction becomes familiar. 

Exercise H., HI., &c. — Form a given number of propositions, 
having subjects modified by a noun in o.pioosition modification. 

Let the verbs in these and the following exercises be selected from the 
list of verbs of the ancient conjugation. "When the pupil is once sufficiently 
familiar with these verbs, and especially with those in which he might be 
most subject to commit blunders, let him be required to use verbs of the 
modern conjugation regularly inflected. In one exercise, let it be required 
that all the verbs shall be in a certain tense simple or compound ; in the next, 
in a different tense, that the learner may become perfectly acquainted with 
all the forms of the verb. Perseverance in these exercises will secure a 
thorough knowledge of grammar ; serve as an introduction to English com- 
position, which consists of propositions j^roperly arranged to express thought •, 
and call the pupil's powers of invention into full action. 

(28) The learner must be careful not to confound this apposition 
complement with the peculiar species of complement of the predicate 
which we are soon to consider. (29) For this purpose, let him re- 
member, first, that the word in apposition is always employed to 

(28) "What warning is given to tlie learner ? (29) "What two facts is he enjoined to re- 



§ YO.] OF APPOSITION. lYS 

modify a noun (including the few instances in whicli a proposition 
considered substantively is thus modified), never a verb. Second, 
that the modified noun, and the noun in apposition, are always in the 
same member ; that is, both in the' subject, or both in the predicate of 
the proposition. (30) In such examples as " John fell a victim to 
his ungovernable passions," " Hortensius died a martyr," the con- 
struction is entirely difi'erent from that which we have been consider- 
ing. (31) The words victim and martyr are not in apposition with 
John and Hortensius, but manifestly make up a part of what is as- 
serted of them respectively. (32) What is asserted of John, \q falling 
a victim to Ms passions^ and of Hortensius, dying a martyr — a very 
different construction (conveying a different meaning) from Horten- 
sius^ the martyr^ died. (33) In the following passage, we have an 
example of each of these distinct species of construction : " My wife, 
sweet sootJier of my cares, fell *******a victim to despair." Here 
soother^ with its modifications, is placed in apposition with wife^ the 
subject noun, but victim is a complement of the predicate — a part of 
what is asserted of Ms icife, the sweet soother of his cares. 

Model Analysis — ISTorN in Apposition. — Example : John, the 
carpenter, fell, &c. John is modified by the 7ioun oaepentee ^^Z^cec? in 
ap2^osition. Till the learner thoroughly understands this construction, 
the question should be put, whenever a noun in apposition occurs. 
What do you mean by a noun in apposition f The answer to this is, 
It is a noun expressing an attribute or an appellation {some other 
name) placed by another noun, generally, in order to denote more defi- 
nitely the object represented by the principal noun, sometimes, merely 
for the purpose of ornament or emphasis. 

(34) A noun in apposition, when it follows the principal noun, is 
separated from it, and from the rest of the proposition, by commas. 
(See Appendix on Punctuation.) 

§ 70. (1) We may here notice another way in which a noun without 
any change of form, or connecting word expressed, is employed to 
modify another noun. (2) It consists in attaching a modifying 
noun to 2» principal noun (as we do an adjective, see § 86) to limit 
or describe it. (3) "We have examples in such combinations as, 

member ? (30) Give examples of a construction sometimes confounded with apposition. 
(31) Wliat is sa-id in reference to the words mctim and inarti/r in these examples ? (32) 
What is asserted of John and Hortensius respectively in the examples ? (33) Give an ex- 
ample containing both forms of construction, point out these separate forms, and tell how 
they are distinguished. (34) What is said of the punctuation or interpunction ? 

§ 70. (1) Is the noun unchanged and without a conne<;ting word employed in any other 
way, save apposition, to modify other norms ? (2) How ? (3) Give examples. (4) What • 



176 STRUCTURE OF LATn.GUAGE. [§ 71. 

window shutters^ a wine cellar, a gold watch, a gold pencil case, &c. 
(4) Here the words window, wine, gold, gold pencil, perform a func- 
tion similar to that of descriptive adjectives. (5) Indeed the word 
gold, used as in the examples above, is commonly recognised as an 
adjective, as well as golden, which is formed from it, and always 
employed attrihutively. (6) But for considering the word gold an 
adjective, we see no in ore reason than for considering the words 
ivindow, wine, &c., as employed above, adjectives. (7) They all alike 
perform, as here used, the function of attributives or adjectives. 
(8) We shall call this The Modification by a Noun adjectively 

EMPLOYED. 

[ (9) This species of construction is very prevalent in our lan- 
guage, and has given origin to a large class of our compound words. 
(10) We might enumerate some dozens of these compounds, formed 
from the single noun horse, used ad.jectively before other words ; as, 
horsel)ac'k, horsetean, horseblock, horseboat, horseboy, horsebreaTcer, &c., 
&c. (11) Some of these compounds are written as one word, some 
with a hyphen-marlQ (-) between the component parts ; sometimes 
the two words are written separately. (12) The usage in regard 
to the manner of writing many words thus formed is not perfectly 
settled; some writing them with, and some without a hyphen, and 
some writing words as separate, which others unite by the hyphen. 
(18) It is plain that aU such compounds must have originated from 
what we have called the adjective use of the noun ; and this adjective 
use has itself, we suppose, generahy originated from an elliptical mode 
of expressing various complements formed by the noun. (14) Tor 
example, horseboat is equal to boat for horses, that is, to carry horses, 
or a boat moved by horses ; for this compound word has these two dis- 
tinct meanings. Horse breaker = one who breaks horses, Horse being 
here originally objectwe complement to the verbal word breaker. 
Horse-courser, horse-keeper, horsestealer are all similar to horse-breaker. 
Horse-hair, horse-Jiesh, &c. = horse'' s hair, horse" s flesh, or tlie hair of a 
horse, &c. 

kind of function do the words windoio, wine, &c., perform in these examples? (5) What 
is said of the word gold, f (6) What further remark about gold as an adjective ? (7) What 
remark in reference to all these words ? 

(8) What name is given to this species of modification ? 

[(9) Repeat the remark in reference to this species of construction. (10) What is said 
of the number of compound words thus formed? (11) What is said of the speUing of these 
compounds? (12) Repeat remark in reference to the usage in this matter. (13) What is 
said in reference to the origin of these compounds ? (14) Illustrate by examples. (15) Ee- 



§71.] MODIFICATION OF A NOUN BY AN INFINITIVE. lYY 

(15) When the two nouns have completely coalesced into a single 
word, it will be unnecessary in practical analysis to have recourse to 
our mode of naming the modifying noun. The compound may be 
treated as a single noun. (1 6) We have noticed this species of modi- 
fication that the learner may be able to give a satisfactory account of 
the cases in which the nouns are either universally, or occasionally 
written separately. (17) If there were no cases of this kind now to be 
found, it would stiU be proper that we should notice the fact that this 
species of modification once prevailed extensively in the language, and 
gave birth to a host of our compound terms.] 

§71. There is yet another species of modification sometimes 
applied to nouns which we may as well treat in this place. (1) It 
consists of the verbal noun, commonly called the Infinitive j^ (2) 
This form of modification is placed after the princijMl word. (3) 
We have examples in such phrases as, A desire to learn. A pro- 
pensity to find fault. The wish to excel. The desire to please. (4) 
He has a heart to pity, a hand to help. The infinitive here expresses 
a purpose = a heart for the purpose of pitying, a hand for the pur- 
pose of helping. (See § 77 : 6, and Note.) (5) An action to he con- 
demned. Here there is perhaps an ellipsis of the word worthy, or 
some similar adjective. It is time to rise. An opportunity to enrich 
himself. (6) This kind of modification occurs less frequently than 
some others, and has received slight notice from grammarians. (7) 



* Since these words are preceded in this case by the particle to, this 
modification might perhaps be placed among those united to the principal 
"Word by an intermediary. But there is good reason to doubt whether the 
word TO is really in this use a mere intermediary ; and we have already, 
waiving all dispute about the matter, presented the infinitive with its accom- 
panying particle as a noun, because, thus accompanied, it performs the func- 
tion of subject noun. We must, therefore, in consistency, treat the combina- 
tion of the particle with the verbal root, here as elsewhere, as if it were a 
single word. Indeed, there is no other course open to us, till it has been 



peat remark in reference to the mode of analysis, when this kind of compounds occurs. (16) 
What reason is assigned for noticing this species of modification ? (17) What further is said 
about noticing this species of modification ?] 

§ 71. (1) Mention another species qi modification applied to nouns. (2) Where is this 
modification placed in reference to the principal word? (8) Eepeat the firstfour examples. 
(4) Eepeat the next example and the observation. (5) Eepeat remark on example, "cm 
acUon to be condemned."'' (6) Eepeat remark in reference to this kind of modification. (7) 
What name may be given to this form of modification ? 



1*78 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ '72. 

We may call it tlie Infinitive Modification of the Noun. In 
tlie analysis of such a phrase as, A desire to learn, the scholar will 
simply say that the noun desire is modified by the infinitive to 
learn.* 

ExEECisE. — Let the learner select a given number of examples fi'om 
some book. Or, what is better, and in this case perhaps easier, let 
him form a given number of propositions containing appropriate ex- 
amples of this species of modification. 

§ 12. (1) We next dhect attention to such modifications of 
verbs as consist of a noun in the same form as it is employed for 
subject noun, and without the aid of an intermediary/ word. (2) 
ISTouns are thus employed, both in the singular and plural form, to 
modify, or, rather, to complete many neuter verbs — especially the 
verb to he. (3) We may call this species of modification (till we 
can find a better name) the Noun complementary of the neuter 

VERB.f 



settled what is the precise function (or functions, if more than one) of the 
particle to in the infinitive form of verbals. "Whether it is to distinguish the 
Infinitive use, the termination originally marking this verbal being lopped 
away in the progress of the language, we leave others to inquire. Enough 
for our present purpose that these combinations perform the main function 
of nouns. It may be remarked that the particle to was not employed in the 
Anglo-Saxon with the infinitive form, but with a kind of gerundive ; for 
example, infinitive, Lnfian (never preceded by the particle to), to love ; ger- 
undive, to Lufi^fenne (always preceded by to), to love, to loving, <fec. 

* These infinitives after nouns bear some resemblance to apposition mod- 
ifications. They may generally be expanded into accessory propositions 
which serve as appositions ; as. The hoy has a desire to learn = The boy has a 
desire that he may learn. (See §§ 105 and 106.) 

f There are several other forms of modification nearly allied to this, which 
we are not ready a-s yet to bring under the notice of the learner. When we 
have got them all before us, we intend to explain our views of the whole 
class at the same time, and give our reasons for adopting the names by which 
we call them. These constructions have never been satisfactorily explained, 
so far as we know, in any of our English grammars. The laborious Ger- 
mans have gone farthest in the investigation of this form of modification. 

§ T2. (1) To -what is our attention next directed ? (2) Repeat what is said in reference 
to the modification of neuter veris. (3) "What name may we give to this species of modifi- 
cation ? 



§ 12.] NOUN COMPLEMENTARY OF THE NEUTER VERBS. 179 

Examples. — Knowledge is potcer. Wealth is power. " Thy word 
is truth.'''' " Wisdom is a defence.'''' " The fear of the Lord is the hegin- 
ning of wisdom." "The love of money is the root of all evil," 
Demosthenes was an orator. The men were Athenians. " This mari 
seems the leader of the whole party." He continued steward. " Hor- 
tensius died a martyr.'''' "The gentle Sydney lived the shepherd's 
friend.''"' He reigned absolute monarch. He stood candidate for that 
office. " There the pitcher stands a fragment.'''' John becomes a 
man. 

Let the learner analyze all the words printed in italics in the preced- 
ing examples, as o, first exercise on the use of this modiiication. Mo- 
del OE Examination. — Example, Knoioledge is power. Point out the 
subject of this proposition ? Ans. Knowledge^ for of this the assertion 
is made. Point out the predicate as it here stands assertively ex- 
pressed. Ans. Is power .^ for this forms the assertion. Can you ex- 
press the predicate alone freed from assertion ? Ans. Yes. Beiny 
power., for this is what, in the proposition, is asserted of knowledge. 
Point out the «er&, name the class to which it belongs, and tell tense, 
number, and person. Ans. Is is the verb, because it makes the asser- 
tion ; it belongs to the class of neuter verbs ; and is in the indefinite 
tense, singular number, third person. What is the subject noun? Ans. 
Knowledge. Is it modified ? Ans. ISTo. How is the verb modified ? 
Ans. By the comjjlementary noun power. 

Model of a Written Exercise. — Knowledge 8. JSf. is V. n. indf 
si7ig. 3. md. hy power comp. JSf. To be read thus : knowledge is the sub- 
ject noun ; is the verb. It is of the neuter or intransitive class, indefi- 
nite tense, singular number, third person, and modified by the com- 
plementary noun power. Exercise II. — Write the above examples after 
this model. 

Exercise III., IV., &c. — Let the learner endeavor to find, or to 
construct a given number of examples embracing one or more of the 



Yet we cannot follow their footsteps exactly, since our mode of analysis dif- 
fers considerably from theirs in other things, but especially in reference to 
the verb to be. We are happy to shelter ourselves under the authority of 
Becker, and to acknowledge our obligations to him for much information on 
the subject of this class of modifications, which he calls the factitive object. 
Though our method differs materially from his, we believe our opinions on 
this subject are consistent with his, except in reference to the verb to be. 
This verb he treats, like all other grammarians, as being the naked copula ; 
we reduce it in a grammatical point of view — that is, in reference to its con- 
Btvuctioual functions — to a level with other intransitive verbs. 



180 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ '73. 

preceding forms of modification. This exercise may be repeated till 
the learner is familiar with the forms of construction already ,ex- 
hibited, 

§ 73. (1) We might jDroceed to treat of several other modifi- 
cations of the verb, or comi^lements of the predicate, consisting of 
nouns which, in the present state of the language-, are used for this 
purpose without any change of their form. (2) There is a class of 
words, however, recognised as nouns, namely, the pronouns, which 
assume a form distinct from the subject form, when they are em- 
ployed in some of these modifications. (3) And in the language 
from which the English descends, as well as in many of the ancient 
and modern languages, a distinct form of the noun is generally 
employed for the purposes referred to. (4) Besides, these comple- 
ments stand in a different relation to the subject of the proposition, 
from that in which the noun complementary of the neuter verb 
stands.* This distinction it may be useful to mark by treating these 
modifications as belonging to separate classes. (5) We therefore pro- 
pose to suspend for the present the enumeration of the various spe- 
cies of modifications, in order to consider briefly the particular 
changes which the noun undergoes in our language, that it may 
serve certain functions as a modifying or comjileting word. 



* The noun complementary of the neuter verb expresses something which is 
contemplated by the speaker as having its seat in the subject, in such manner 
as the verb indicates. For example, " Knowledge is power." Here power 
is contemplated as a something so seated in the subject knowledge, that it ex- 
ists together (co-exists) with it. Or considering power (as we are inclined 
to do here), as con-noting the attributes of power, these attributes are con- 
templated in this assertion as co-existing with knowledge. Again, "This 
man seems the leader." Here the attributes con-noted by the term leader are 
contemplated as seemingly co-existing with the subject — " the man." The pre- 
dicate — modification and all — ends in the subject in all these eases, and hence, 
the subject form of the noun is used. But the complements to be considered 
express a something without and beyond the subject, influenced by the action 
of the verb. Hence, in many languages they take a fo]*m distinct from the 
subject form. 

§ 73. (1) Are there any other modifications of verbs consisting of nouns in the same form 
employed as subject noun? (2) What is remarked of the pronouns ? (3) What is remarked 
of the language from which the English is descended, and of other languages ? (4) What 
is said of some of the complements of the predicate, formed by nouns, and yet to be con- 
sidered ? C5) What is now proposed ? 



§ Y3.] GENITIVE OR POSSESSIVE CASE. 181 

(6) These different forms of the noun are known in grammar 
by the name of Cases of the Noun. (V) The form used as 
subject noun — the real noun without addition or modification (save 
that of plurahty), is generally counted (perhaps not with strict pro- 
priety) one of the cases. (8) The subject form, with which the 
learner may now be supposed to be familiar, is distinguished by 
the name of The Nominative Case. The singular form of the 
noun is called the nominative case singular, the plural form the 
nominative case plural. (9) If we consider that only a distinct 
case which is marked by a distinct form, we have but one other 
case, besides the nominative, of any of our nouns with the excep- 
tion of that class called pronouns. (10) This single case form is 
called the genitive case by all the old grammarians. (11) Our 
English grammarians have very generally called it the possessive 
case, because the genitive most commonly denotes possession, on 
the part of the object which the modifying noun represents, in re- 
ference to the object which is represented by the principal noun. 
(12) Thus, The merchanfs store. Here the genitive or possessive 
form merchant'' s, indicates that the merchant possesses what is de- 
noted by the modified noun — store. 

Formation of the Genitive or Possessive Case. — (13) The 
genitive or possessive case is formed in the written language by 
adding to the noun an s, preceded by an apostrophe ; as man, 
genitive manh. 

[(14:) The observations in § 42, regarding the manner in which the 
s of the plural forin is pronounced, apply with equal force to this s of 
the genitive case. (15) If the final letter of the noun to which the s 
is added is a shar2J mute, the s must necessarily be pronounced with 
its proper sharp sound; as a ship's company, a hawk's fiight, a cat's 
paw, &c. (16) If on the contrary, the noun ends in a fiat mute, a 

(6) By what name are these different forms of the noun distinguished? (7) What is 
said of the form used as subject noun ? (8) What case nmne is given to the s^idjectform ? 
(9) What is said of the nnvaber of cases marked by a distinct form in English? (10) What 
is the only case of nouns (excepting pronouns) answering to this description called ? (11) 
What name has generally been given to it by English grammarians? State the reason, 
(12) Repeat example and illustration. 

(18) How is the genitive case formed in the Avritten language ? 

[(14) What observations apply to the pronunciation of this s of the genitive ? (15) When 
the final letter of the noun is a sharp mute, how must the s be sounded ? (16) How when 
the final letter is a flat mute ?] 



182 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 73. 

liquid^ or a vowel^ the s of the genitive is sounded like s ; as, a stag's 
horns^ a man's Tiead^ a hero's courage^ 

(IV) AVhen the j^^ural form of a noun does not end in 5, the 
genitive, or possessive case plural is formed, in the same manner as 
the genitive case singular, by adding in the written language s, pre- 
ceded by an apostrophe to the plural form ; as, men, genitive men's, 
brethren, genitive brethren's, &c. (18) But when the plural ends, 
as it generally does, in s, another s could not be added without giv- 
ing an additional syllable to the word in pronunciation-. (19) This 
is never done for the purpose of forming a ^ZwraZ genitive. (20) 
When the plural subject noun (or nominative case, as it is com- 
monly called) ends in s, the genitive plural agrees with it in sound, 
and in the spoken language can be distinguished from it by the 
sense alone. (21) In the written language the genitive j)lural is 
distinguished from the nominative plural by an apostrophe (') placed 
after the final s of the nominative; as, On eagles' wings, The 
Friends' meeting house ; equivalent to. On the wings of eagles. The 
meeting house of the Friends. 

[(22) The same method of distinguishing the genitive singular, is 
also adopted in the written language, when the singular form of the 
noun ends in ss ; as, For righteousness'' sake. (23) The apostrophe is 
also placed after some other words ending in an s sound, to indicate 
the genitive ; as. For conscience'' salce.^ 

(24) In the spoTcen language, we sometimes form the genitive of 
singular nouns (generally proper names) ending in an s sound, by 
adding the syllable es ; as James'' Tcite, pronounced Jamezez Mte. 



* We suspect that the s in the next word, sake, has its influence here. 
We know no example, except this, of a genitive form of conscience. Peace, 
in the genitive, ought, we presume, to be spelled peace's, and should cer- 
tainly be pronounced peacez — For peace' or peace's sake. 



(17) How is the genitive plural formed, when the plural subject form does not end in s ? 
(IS) What would be the effect of adding an 's when the subject form ends in 6- ? (19) Is 
this ever in fact done to form a plural genitive? (20) What is the genitive plural form in 
the spoken language when the nominative plural ends in s f (21) How is it distinguished 
from the nominative in the written language ? Give the examples. 

[(22) Repeat the observation in reference to singular nouns ending in ss. (23) Do any 
singular words besides those in ss form the genitive in the same way ? 

(24) What is said of some singular nouns taking the syllable ez in their genitive in the 



§ 74.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 183 

(25) Perhaps such forms should be spelled, as they are pronounced, 
with es added to the nominative, or rather, with 's, to distinguish them 
from ^:>ZMraZ forms; as James's, Tliomas''s, Douglas's. (26) Some 
authors add the 's to such nouns — some the apostrophe alone. (27) To 
one noun ending in ss, we find the 's sometimes added — namely, wit- 
ness ; thus. The witness's 'Deracity^ 

In proper Barnes ending in a, the genitive case is very generally the same 
with the nominatiA^e in the spoken language. This applies particularly to 
Greek and Latin proper names. In the written language an apostrophe is 
placed after the s, but in speaking, the genitive is not distinguished from the 
nominative. Examples, " Achilles' wrath ; " Atreus' I'oyal line ;" " Olym- 
pus' lofty tops;" "Thetis' godlike son;" "Pirithous' fame." "Briseis' 
charms," <fec. This form of expression is generally avoided in prose, and 
the IS'orman construction adopted ; thus, The wrath of Achilles, (fee. 

We have examples of similarly formed genitives of Scripture proper 
names; as, "Jesus' sake;" "Moses' law." These names in the early editions of 
the authorised version, as well as in the versions of Tyndale, Cranmer, and 
that of Geneva, are printed without the apostrophe, and were undoubtedly 
pronounced in the same manner as the nominative ; and, we believe, they 
are, generally, so pronounced at the present day. The use of the apostrophe, 
in marking genitives, was introduced, as we shall again have occasion to ob- 
serve, much later than the age of the translators. 

(28) Eemaek. — Let the learner carefully remember, that in wri- 
ting genitive or possessive cases, the mark called apostrophe (') is an 
essential part of the modern spelling. To omit it, is as much an error 
in orthography, as to omit a letter in a word. 

§ 74. Declension of Nouns and Pronouns. — (1) We now 
propose to exhibit what is called the declension of nouns ; that is, 
the regular arrangement of their cases of the singular and plural 
forms. (2) The declension of nouns (leaving out of view the pro- 
nouns), if we admit only the cases which possess distinct forms, 
would be as follows :— 

Singular. 
Nominative, Man, 

Genitive, Man's, 

spoken language ? (25) How should such genitives perhaps be written ? (26) Are authors 
agreed in this matter ? (27) What is said of the noun witness ?] 

(2S) Repeat the remark about spelling. 

§ 74. (1) What is meant by the declension of a noun? (2) Decline the nouns man and 
friend, as given above, spelling them afterwards, including the apostrophe as part of the 
spelling. 



Plural 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Men. 


Friend, 


Friends. 


Men's. 


Friend's, 


Friends'. 



184 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 74. 

(o) We shall, however, for reasons which will appear hereafter, 
exhibit the declensions so as to accord with the structure of the 
ancient Anglo-Saxon, and the sister languages of the north of Eu- 
rope, and substantially with the Greek and Latin. (4) In doing 
this we add two cases to those already enumerated, but which in 
form (save in the class of pronouns) are always the same with the 
nominative. (5) One of these w^e call, following the commonly 
received names, the accusative or objective case. (6) The last is the 
name generally given to this case by EngHsh grammarians, because 
its chief function is to express the passive object of an active verb. 
(V) The second additional case we call also by the old name, the 
Dative Case. This case is sometimes used to express what is called 
the ^:>erso?2aZ object of a verb, the same which is more generally ex- 
pressed by the noun preceded by the particle to. 

(8) We might add a fifth case, and so conform more completely to 
the ancient models of declension, calling it the vocative. (9) A noun 
is said to be in the 'Docative or case of address, when it is used in calling 
upon that which the noun represents, (10) In the ancient languages, 
the noun thus employed sometimes differed in form from the nomina- 
tive. (11) The subject form, when convenient, was abbreviated, as 
we still sometimes abbreviate the names of our familiar friends, in 
calling them, (12) Thus Tliomas becomes Tom, James Jem, William 
Will, &c. 

(13) But as the noun used in address does not enter into the struc- 
ture of propositions, serves simply in continuous speech as the means 
of calling the attention of the party addressed, and gives no occupa- 
tion to the student of grammatical analysis, we omit it in the model 
of declension.* 



* Whether there are some dozen cases, or three cases, or two cases, or 
only one case, depends on the definition which we choose to give to the 
term case. This term is derived from a Latin word, which means to fall. 
Casus, the Latin of case, means a falling. The subject noun, in its singular 

(3) How do Tve propose to exhibit the declensions? (4) What additional cases are intro- 
duced? (5) What is one of these cases called? (6) Why is it called the objective case? 
(7) What is the second additional case called, and what is its function ? 

(8) What other case might be added ? (9) What is the function of a vocative case? (10) 
What is said of the form of this case in the ancient languages ? (11) Repeat the remark in 
reference to the ancient forms of the vocative. (12) Give examples. 

(13) What reason is given for omitting the vocative in our model of declension ? (14) 
Decline 'brother, afterwards spelling and noting the placo of tho apostrophe. 



§74.] 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 



185 



Full Model of Declension. 



(14) 

NOM. 

Gen. or Poss. 
Dative. 
Accus. or Obj. 



Singular. 

Brother, 

Brother's, 

Brother, 

Brother, 



Plural. 
Brothers, 
Brothers', 
Brothers, 
Brothers, 



Old Plural, 
Brethren. 
Brethren's. 
Brethren. 
Brethren. 



We subjoin the Declension of the Personal Pronouns. (15) 
It will be seen that most of these have a form for the accusative 
and dative, distinct from the form of the nominative. (16) It will 



and plural forms, appears to have been considered (rather whimsically, per- 
haps) by the old grammarians as the upright or straight form — the standard 
form — (in Latin casus rectus) from which the other case forms were fallings 
off, or declinations. (Hence the term declension.) According to this view, 
the subject noun cannot properly be called a case. Yet a case it has been 
called by the ancient grammarians themselves, and we still currently call it 
the nominative case. If we use the term case strictly, as meaning a falling 
off from the form of the subject noun, or, to speak more in accordance with 
modern conceptions, a change of the form of the noun, we have only one 
case in English nouns, namely, the possessive, or genitive case. We have, 
however, according to this view, two cases in some of the pronouns. If we 
consider the noun, when used to complete a verb (as shall be shown here- 
after), and when it is connected to another word by a preposition, as a dis- 
tinct case, and call the subject noun the nominative, we shall have three 
cases of nouns. This is the view of the subject generally taken by English 
grammarians. This third case — the noun used after verbs and prepositions 
— they call the objective or accusative case. 

Another principle on which to determine the number of cases, is to 
recognise every distinct function which a noun pei'forms in construction, 
independently, without the help of other words, as a distinct case. On this 
principle, we shall have a dative case, at least, in addition to the three al- 
ready enumerated. We have adopted this principle of determining the 
number of eases, so far as to admit a dative. It may be doubted whether, 
in consistency, we ought not to admit a case to express time, measure, (fee, 
and a distinction between the functions of object direct of a verb, and the 
noun which follows a preposition. If we admit every relation in which a 
noun may stand to another noun, verb, or adjective, either with or without 
the aid of a preposition, we shall have, as we said in the beginning of this 
note, some dozen cases. 



(15) What remark in reference to the accusative and dative forms of the personal pro- 
nouns ? (16) Kepeat remark in reference to the formation of the cases of pronouns. 



186 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [| 74. 

also be seen that neither the possessive form nor the accusative 
form of these pronouns is in most cases regularly derived from the 
nominative. 

Declexsion or the Personal Pronouns. 







SINGULAR. 








First Person. 


Second Person. 




Third Person. 




Mas. 


Fern. Neut. 


NOM. 


I, 


Thou, 


He, 


She, It. 


Gen. 


Mine, 


Thine, 


His, 


Hers, Its.* 


Dat. 


Me, 


Thee, 


Him, 


Her, It. 



Accus. Me, Thee, Him, Her, It. 

PLURAL. 

You, old ye,f They, In all genders. 

Yours, Theirs, " 

You, Them, « 

You, old ye. Them. " 



NOM. 


We, 


Gen. 


Ours, 


Dat. 


Us, 


Accus. 


Us, 



* Some give a double form of the genitive or j)ossessive cases of all 
these pronouns excej)t He and It. Thus, My, or mine; thy, or thine; 
her, or hers; our, or ours; your, or yours; their, or theirs. My, thy, her, 
our, your, their, we treat as determinative adjectives. (See Additional Ob- 
servations on the Personal Pronouns, § 155.) The learner will remark, that 
no apostrophe is used in writing ozirs, yours, hers, its, theirs. 

f You has not only usurped the place of thoic, in addressing an individual, 
but also the place of ye, in addressing a number of individuals. At one 
period of our language, ye appears to have been used exclusiTcly as the 
form for the nominative plui'al (or plural subject noun) of the second person. 
Many instances may be found in which ye is used as an accusative, both af- 
ter verbs and prepositions: for example — "The more shame /or ye — holy 
men I thought ye." — Shak. This usage may have arisen from a softened or 
slovenly pronunciation of you, in conversation. It is still common enough 
to hear persons of good education say, Thank ye, instead of. Thank you ; 
though such forms are banished from the written language. 

You, was originally the proper accusative form of the second person plu- 
ral, and used only for the purpose of modification, and not as subject noun. 
K'ow it performs the functions of nominative, accusative, and dative, both 
singidar and plural. The possessives your and yours, whether we regard 

(17) Decline separately each of the personal pronouns. 



§ 75.] THE GENITIVE CASE MODIFICATION. 187 

ExEECisE on the Formation of the Genitive or Possessive Case. — 
Write the following nouns in the Genitive Case, followed by such nouns 
as they can appropriately modify. Man, singular and plural. Brother. 
Brothers. Brethren. Hqvo., singular ondi. plural. William. James. 
x\gnes. Mary. The tailor. The shoemaker. The carpenter. My 
father. Mother. Wisdom. Beauty. Virtue. Goodness, &c. Each 
of these may be applied as genitive modification of several other 
nouns, if this should be thought expedient. 

§ 75. We now return to the enumeration of the several modi- 
fications of nouns and verbs. 

(1) We direct our attention first to that modification of the 
noun (or complement of the subject), which consists of a noun in 
the genitive or possessive case prefixed to limit it. (2) This we may 
call the Genitive or Possessive Case Modification of the Noun. (3) 
Or, more briefly, the Genitive Modification (abbreviated, Gen. Mn.) 
(4) The noun in the genitive case usually expresses what stands in 
the relation of possessor, or some kindred relation to what the noun 
which it modifies expresses. We give a number of examples which 
the learner will analyze as an exercise. We mark, by using Italics, 
the words which the learner is prepared by the instructions already 
given to analyze. He may pass over, for the present, the words 
printed in Roman characters. 

(5) It will be remembered that this, like other modifications, is 
not limited to the noun employed as subject noun, but may be 
applied to a noun whatever function it happens to perform in the 
construction of a proposition. 

Examples to serve as an Exercise in Analysis. — ^isfather''s 
house stands a ruin. In God''s sight, mail's strength is weakness ; 
maviS wisdom is follij ; marHs hopes are vanity. WisdoWbS ways 
are ivays of pleasantness ; her paths are peace. Prayer is the con- 
trite sinner^s voice. Minerva^ s temple stood a landmarh to the mari- 
ner. That mavbS haste to grow rich became the c-ause of his reverses. 

one or both as cases of you, or as determinative adjectives formed from you, 
liave in like manner superseded the old singular forms. 

§ 75. (1) Describe the modification of the noun here first presented. (2) How do wo 
name this modification ? (3) Give a shorter name, and the abbreviation. (4) Eepeat what 
is said of the noun in the genitive case. 

(5) Eepeat remark. 



188 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ ^5 

Th.Q fooV s prosperity becomes Ms destruction. Jolin''s escape seemed 
a miracle. William^s energy secured him an independence. 

(6) The principal noun in this species of construction is often 
suppressed, when clearly indicated by the modifying noun in the^05- 
sessive case. (7) Thus, St. PauVs, St. Peter^s, &c,, are used to 
signify the churches named in honor of the Apostles Paul and Pe- 
ter ; The hoolc seller'' s, The stationer'' s, The grocer'' s^ instead of The 
hooTcseller'' s shop^ The stationer^ shop, &c. (8) The possessive cases 
mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are never, in the present usage 
of the language, followed by the noun which they limit. (9) In other 
words, these possessive forms are never used except when (to avoid 
ungraceful repetition) we wish to suppress the p7'incipcd noun. (10) 
Thus we say, That book is mine, ours, yours, hers, &c., to avoid 
the ungraceful repetition of book in the predicate of the proposition 
which would be necessary if we employed the forms my, our, your, 
&c. That book is my book ; except we omit (as is often doue) the 
noun of the subject, and say. That is 7ny book. (11) This is the 
real distinction between the forms mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, 
theirs, on the one hand, and my, our, thy, your, her, their, on the 
other ; the first-mentioned class are alwaj's used when the principal 
noun — the noun which they limit — is suppressed, the last men- 
tioned when ihe principal nowxi is expressed.* (12) It follows that 



* TLe word his is used both when the principal noun is suppressed, and 
when it is expressed; thus we say both, That horse is his, and That is his 
horse. In other words, the form his performs the double function of a pos- 
sessive case of HE, and of a determinative adjective pronoun. Its we sus- 
pect is seldom employed to perform the double function of a possessive case 
of its, namely, both to indicate and limit a suppressed noun. The gram- 
mars, which we have examined give no examples ; and we cannot think of a 
case in which its could be gracefully and appropriately employed with its 
principal noun suppressed. If no examples can be found of this use, its should 
be degraded from the place which it occupies in our grammars as possessive 
case of it, that is, in those grammars which exclude 7ny, our, &c., from this 
place. Its is a word that (even as an adjective pronoun) has no long stand- 



(6) What often happens in reference to the principal noun in this construction ? (T) Ee- 
peat examples. (8) What is said in reference to the possessive cases, mine, ours. &c. ? (9) 
Vary the expression. (10) Eepeat examples, and illustrate them. (11) State the real dis- 
tinction between mine, ours, thine, youm, &c., on the one hand, and my, our, thy, your, 
&c., on the other. (12) What follows from what has been said of m,me, ours, &c. ? (13) 



§ '^^•J A '^^^ GENITIVE CASE MODIFICATION. 189 

mme, ours, &c., (and all ottier possessive cases when the principal 
noun is suppressed), serve not only to li7nit the principal noun, but 
to indicate it. (13) Thus in the example. That knife is mine ; mine 
at once indicates knife and limits iU^Tkat knife is my knife, where 
knife is denoted by its own name, and limited by the determinative 
my. So, in the example, / called at your father's this morning ; 
the possessive case father'' s at once indicates and limits the princi- 
pal noun house. 

(14) The possessive case thus indicating the principal noun, 
which it limits, often stands in the place of subject noun in a prop- 
osition, and of the noun complementa^ry of the neuter verb, or predi- 
cate noun, as, some call it. (15) For example: Your horse runs 
fast, hut mine runs faster, and our friend's runs faster than either. 
Here mine in the second, and friend's in the third proposition, rep- 
resent or stand in the place of the subject noun. This house is 
MINE, and yonder house is your friend's. Here mine and friend's 
stand in the place of nouns complementary of the verb is. 

ing in the language. Till the times of James I., and perhaps later, his served 
for neuter as well as masculine possessive case, and possessive adjective pro- 
noun. It is so used in the- authorized version of the Scriptures, and in the 
older editions of Shakspeare. "When it giveth his color in the cup." — Prov. 
23 : 31. ^^ Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint."' — Brown. We 
suspect the same might be said in respect to Shakspeare and Spenser, save 
where the text has been changed by the officious meddling of editors. It 
was also spelled hit as late as the times of Shakspeare, being really a neuter 
form of he, hit for het, as his for hes — a regular genitive of he. But more 
of this in additional remarks on the personal pronouns. (§ 155.) 

When we say above that the forms my, our, your, &c., must always be 
followed by the noun which they limit, an apparent exception may be no- 
ticed in such expressions as. That hook is my own. Here indeed the noun is 
suppressed, but it is indicated by own ; or it is own — the last adjective (as 
in all similar cases), which is to be considered as employed substantively. 
My, therefore, does not here perform the function which distinguishes mine 
— the function of indicating the suppressed principal or limited noun, but 
precedes, as usual, what stands for the noun. 



Eepeat the illustration by an example of a possessive case of a pronoun and of a common 
noun. 

(14) What purposes does the possessive case thus come to serve ? (15) Eepeat examples 
and illustration. 



190 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ TS. 

(16) In tlie same way the possessive case represents tlie noun 
wliicli it is designed primarily to limit in other forms of modification.^ 
(17) But in all such cases (indeed in all cases of ellipsis — that is 
SUPPRESSION of words), the proper mode of analysis is to supply 
the suppressed (or omitted) word, and then analyze the proposition 
as filled up. At least this plan should be adopted in the commence- 
ment. (18) Thus we fill up the proposition. This house is mine, 
by substituting the words my house instead of mine. Then house 
is the predicate noun, or noun complementary of the verb is, and my 
modifies or limits house, and belongs to a class of modifying words 
to be described hereafter. (See § 91.) Again, in such examples as, 
This horse is my friend's, we supply horse after friend's, and pro- 
ceed as before. (19) When familiar with this elliptical construction, 
the learner can say in analyzing the above example, that the verb 
IS is modified or completed by the complementary noun horse im- 
plied in the possessive case friend's, which at the same time limits 
and represents horse. 

[( 20) Of this elliptical use of the genitive, both of nouns and pro- 
nouns, there are examples in which the suppressed noun is not so ob- 
vious, nor so readily supplied as in those already presented. (21) 
Such, for instance, as " gay hope is theirs." ' We cannot here supply 
the ellipsis in a satisfactory manner by repeating hope. Gay hope is 
their hope. This does not express the poet's meaning. His meaning 
is, that gay hope belongs to them — is their possession. (22) Here 
possession, or some similar word, is to be supplied in order to complete 
the construction. (23) So, in the following example, " All things are 
yours ; — and ye are Christ's ; and Christ is God's." This is equiva- 
lent to the assertion, All things belong to you, &c. Some such word 



^ For instance, in the noun and preposition modification, as That horse is 
one of my father' s==one of my father's horses, or one of the horses of my 
father. 

(16) Does the possessive case represent it?, principal noun in other forms of modifica- 
tion ? (17) What is recommended as the proper mode of analysis in such cases? (i8) Il- 
lustrate by an example of a possessive case of a pronoun and of a noim thus employed. (19) 
Vv^hat shorter mode of analysis may be adopted, -when this construction is familiar to the 
learner ? 

[(20) Eepeat the remark about this elliptical use of the genitive. (21) Give the example. 
(22) What word must be supplied in this example ? (23) Eepeat the examples, and tell 
what nouns are to be supplied.] 



§ 75.] THE GENITIVE CASE MODIFICATION. 191 

as property^ inheritance^ possession^ is implied in these several geni- 
tives.] 

Note. — We have here perhaps an example of the insensible perversion 
of a form of construction from its original purpose, to serve a purpose not 
contemplated when the form was first adopted. This is a very common oc- 
currence in the progress of all languages, and one which has given origin to 
many of those puzzling idiomatic expressions which the grammarian finds 
most difficult to analyze. It is obvious that the suppression of the principal 
noun after a genitive case, was used at first only when it saved the ungraceful 
repetition of the principal noun, and when this noun, being already used 
in the construction, and plainly indicated by the limiting genitive, could 
be readily supplied ; as, This horse is mine. But this, and similar expres- 
sions, are equivalent to saying that This horse belongs to me, and come to 
have this sense affixed to them. Hence they come to be used (in a manner 
not contemplated at first) in such propositions as that quoted above from 
Gray [gay hope is theirs), to express that something simply belongs to the 
party represented by the noun in the genitive, and not, as originally in- 
tended, to avoid an ungraceful or unecessary repetition. The difficulty 
is, that the manner in which Jtope belongs to the boys (represented by 
theirs), and in which the horse belongs to his owner, is not the same — the 
kind of possession is altogether different. And though I can complete the 
first example by introducing the word horse — That horse is my horse, I can- 
not, in the same way, appropriately fill up the other construction by saying. 
Gay hope is their hope, nor in the other examples by saying. All things are 
your things. You are Christ's ye, and Christ is God's Christ There is in all 
these examples a manifest extension of this elliptical construction to cases 
not contemplated when the ellipsis was originally adopted. This is no soli- 
tary instance of this species of perversion, or to call it by a softer name, ex- 
tension of a form of construction to purposes different from those which it 
was originally adopted to serve. The history of all such cases is somewhat 
like the one considered. "We forget, in the progress of language, the origin and 
first precise purpose of a form of expression (sometimes, not always, an elliptical 
form), our mind seizes on the meaning which it happens generally to convey, 
and when we have occasion to convey this meaning, or something approach- 
ing to it, we lay hold of the form of expression, as the most convenient or 
first suggested to our thoughts. In this way words and phrases stray far 
from their original meanings, and come to be used in a way which would 
appear barbarous, or, in some cases, would be unintelligible to the genera- 
tions which first employed them. Examples of this kind are numerous in 
all languages, and give much trouble to the grammarian, because they are 
the product of accident, caprice, sometimes ignorance, and not, like most 
constructions in language, founded on rational principles. As specimens in 
our own language, we may give the form of expression, there is, there are. 



192 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 15. 

&c., and such passive forms as, Iivas refused admittance ; in French ll-y-a^ 
and the like. By the influence of the same principle, 'prevent^ and several 
other words, have assumed new meanings. We need a name for what we 
have been describing. For want of a better, we may call it the insensible 
extension of a cojistruction, or more briefly, insensible extension. We think 
that the fact described above has not been noticed as much as it deserves, in 
accounting for puzzling idiomatic expressions. 

We subjoin some examples of this elliptical construction, which 
may be analyzed by the learner. We indicate, as before, by italics the 
parts of the construction which may be explained by reference to the 
instruction already given. 

Examples foe Analysis. — That palace is the Queen's. The mild 
lustre of the morn is hej's, the lustre of the risen day is his. St. 
Feter''s is the largest eliurch in the world. This Tiov^e is our friend's. 
That shop is the carpenter's. These boolcs are mine., those are yours. 
The present moment alone is ours. 

[" Be tJiine despair and sceptred ca/re; 
To triumph and to die are mine.'''' 

Arrange thus : Despair be thine.^ and sceptred care be thine. For 
BE see § 55, Is'ote.J 

[ (24) The following observations we abridge from Crombie : When 
we wish to express that a single object, or set of objects, is the com- 
mon property of two or more persons, only the last name takes the 
sign of the genitive, though in analysis all the names are to be con- 
sidered as in the genitive case. Thus we say, William and Robertas 
house., William and Eoberfs booTcs., implying that the house and the 
books belong to them in common. (25) But when we refer to distinct 
objects severally possessed by two or more persons, we must give the 
genitive sign to each name ; as. These are William's and Robert's 
houses. 

(26) Wlien a name consists of more than one term, we attach the 
sign of the genitive only to the last term ; as, John the Baptist's head. 
(27) When a short explanatory term (a noun in apposition., for ex- 
ample) is joined to a name, we may attach the sign of the genitive 
either to the name or to the explanatory term ; as, " I left the parcel 
at Mr. Johnson's, the bookseller," or " At Mr. Johnson, the booksel- 



[(24) What peculiarity is noticed in the use of the genitive sign, when we have occasion 
to speak of two or more persons as the possessors of the same object? Eepeat examples. 
(25) What is the usage when two or more persons are spoken of as possessing distinct ob- 
jects? 

(26) What is the usage when a name consists of more than one term ? (27) What when 



§ 75.] THE GENITIVE CASE MODIFICATION. 193 

ler's. (28) But, if the explanatory term is complex, or if there are 
more explanatory terms than one, the sign of the genitive must be 
affixed to the principal noun ; thus, " I left the book at Johnson's, my 
old friend." " This psalm is David's, the king, priest," &c. 

(29) In some cases, we employ both the genitive and a preposi- 
tion ; as, " This is a friend of the king's," elliptically, for " This is a 
friend of the king's friends,"==to " This is one of the king's friends." 
The latter form of expression, we think, is to be preferred ; the other 
is awkward and less perspicuous.*] 

ExEEOiSES I., II., III., &c. — Form a given number of propositions, 
containing examples of the genitive modification, and of any of the 
preceding modifications of subject and predicate, varying the tenses 
used as much as possible. 

Additional Note on the Formation and use of the Genitive. — ^The Eng- 
lish genitive is derived from the Anglo-Saxon. In that language, the geni- 
tive was frequently, though not exclusively formed, by adding to the noun 
the syllable es or s, only when the noun ends in e; as, Smith, genitive 
Smithes ; word, wordes ; ende, endes, (fee. This form of the genitive is found 
in old English, down till the time of Wiclif and Chaucer. Is was sometimes 
substituted for es. This may be regarded as a mere variation of the manner 
of writing these endings. The orthography of our language was very un- 
fixed at that early period, and indeed till a much later time. In the ab- 
sence of every thing like a standard, each author took the liberty of repre- 
senting sounds as his ear directed him, regardless of the authority of others, 
and even, sometimes, of preserving consistency in his own orthography. 

Following that propensity to curtailment so strikingly exhibited in the 
progress of most languages, and of ours especially, we have cut off a syl- 
lable from each of these possessive cases in pronunciation, and latterly 
(so late, we believe, as the end of the seventeenth century) the apostrophe 



* Dr. Bullions remarks, "It is worthy of notice, that though this use of 
the possessive after of, originally and strictly implies selection, or a part 
only, it has insensibly come to be used when no such selection is, or ever 
can be, intended. Thus we may say, "That house of yours," "That farm of 
yours," without intending to imply that any other houses or farms belong 
to you; and when we say, "That head of yours," selection is obviously ex- 
cluded by the sense." — Page 4Y, § 242. Another instance of that insensible 
extension described in a preceding note. Better, perhaps, not to imitate or 
give currency to such forms of expression. 



a short explanatory term is joined to a noun ? (28) What when a complex term consisting 
of more than one word, or several explanatory terms are attached to a name? 

(29) What is said of cases- in which we employ both the genitive and a preposition?] 

13 



194 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ '75. 

has been introduced in the written language, to mark the place left vacant 
by the suppression of the c, and to distinguish the possessive case from the 
plural form of the noun. 

The notion once prevalent (sanctioned by the authority of Addison, in 
some of his papers in the " Guardian" and in the "Spectator''), that the s of 
the possessive case stands for the pronoun his, — John's book, for example, 
instead of John, his book — is now universally exploded. 

We often use the preposition of with a noun, instead of the genitive 
form. This mode of expression is derived from the French, in which there 
is no possessive form. Here, as in many other cases, our language, being 
formed from two distinct sources, possesses two distinct methods of express- 
ing one and the same thing. It would be well if we had taken full advan- 
tage of this circumstance to free ourselves from an ambiguity which some- 
times occurs in those languages, which are confined by usage to the single geni- 
tive form. For example. Amor Dei, in the Latin language, and rj aydin] 
rod Qeov, in Greek, may mean either God's love towards us, or our love 
towards God ; in other words, the love of which God is the subject or agent, 
and the love of which God is the object. To express this fact, the grammari- 
ans say, that the genitive is used in an active and passive sense, or subjec- 
tively and objectively. It is only from the sense, that we can determine in 
which way an author, in any particular instance, intends the genitive to be 
understood. Though we can in most cases, Ave cannot always determine this 
point with the certainty and promptitude that is desirable. Now, if in all 
cases where ambiguity could occur, it were established as the invariable 
usage of our language to employ the possessive case to express the sense of 
the subjective genitive, and the noun and preposition complement, when 
an objective meaning is intended, it would contribute much to perspicuity. 
Some of our best writers avail themselves of this means of discrimination, 
but the majority are, apparently, guided by sound rather than by sense, in 
their choice between the Anglo-Saxon and Norman form of expression, even 
in cases where a manifest ambiguity is involved ; that is to say, where the 
complement might make sense, but a very different sense, whether under- 
stood subjectively or objectively. Amongst those who have failed to avail 
themselves of the advantage presented by the double foi'm of complement, 
the translators of the New Testament must be included. They use the Nor- 
man form to express both the stihjective and objective genitive of the Greek. 
Compare Romans 8: 33; Cor. 13: 14; Tit. 3: 4; lJohn4: 9, with Luke 
11: 42; John 5: 42, &c. 

We may remark here, that there is an awkwardness in modifying a geni- 
tive modification, or the Norman equivalent for a genitive modification, by 
another similar modification. For example, The farmer's sons house, and The 
house of the son of the farmer, are forms of expression avoided by writers of 
good taste. Say, rather. The house of the farmer' s son. 



§ '76.] OBJECTIVE MODIFICATION. 196 

§ 76. (1) We now proceed to consider those modifications of 
the verb or complements of the 'predicate which are formed with the 
accusative or objective case. (2) The most prominent of these modi- 
fications is what we may call The Objective Modification or 
Objective Complement, which consists of the accusative joined to 
active verbs to express the passive object of the action (see § 45 : 
5) ; (3) that is to say, the object which is affected directly by the 
action expressed by the verb. We prefer to say. The object to 
which the action is limited in the particular assertion. (4) For ex- 
ample, The S77iith struck the iron ; The dog bit the child ; The boy 
killed the dog. Here the nouns iron^ child, dog, in the severah pro- 
positions, express the passive objects, and modify or complete the 
verbs to which they are joined ; they express the direction which the 
action of the verb is declared in these several assertion to take, 
and thus limit it. Modern French grammarians call this modifica- 
tion the Complement Direct, to distinguish it from the Complement 
Indirect, or dative modification. 

(5) This modification may be readily distinguished by the fact, 
that it answers, if the object is a person, to the question. Whom ? 
if the object is an animal or a thing, to the question What? as, 
James loves his father. If we put the question. Whom does James 
love ? the answer gives the objective complement ; viz., his father. 
What did the smith strike ? Answer, the iron ; the word ^ro^ thus 
proves to be the objective complement to the verb struck. 

[ (6) It is not to be concluded that the object expressed by the noun 
thus joined to the verb always suffers, or receives some influence from 
the action of the verb, because it is called the passive object. (7) In 
many cases of this kind of construction, no influence whatever is 
asserted to pass from the subject to the object which is expressed after 
the verb. It is merely indicated by the grammatical structure of the 
proposition, that the action expressed by the verb is in the assertion 
limited or restricted to the object expressed by the subjoined noun. 
(8) In some cases, if any influence passes, it is in the opposite direction, 

§ 76. (I) To what subject is it now proposed to proceed ? (2) Which is the most promi- 
nent modiflcation of the kind mentioned ? (3) Repeat the explanation. Repeat the defini- 
tion in the form which is preferred. (4) Repeat the examples accompanied by the illustra- 
tion. What do the French grammarians call this modification ? 

(5) How may this form of modification be readily distinguished ? 

[(6) Repeat the remark under No. 6. (7) Continue the remark. (8) In what direction 



196 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 76. 

viz., from the object of the verb to the subject ; as, for example, / 
hear tlie tell of St. John's ; William svffers 'pain. (9) Here it is surely 
not asserted that the l)ell and ^:>rtm receive influence from the hearing 
or the suffering of the subjects, (10) These objective or accusative 
nouns are employed simply to limit hearing and siffering in the re- 
spective assertions to the lell and to jjifli/z.] 

Note. — Gramatically considered, as contributing to the expression of asser- 
tion (or to the expression of thought), it is always the objective noun which 
influences the verb, and not the verb which influences the noun. The noun 
comes, as it were, to the aid of the verb, to assist in the full development of 
the thought. Physically considered, the action expressed by the active verb 
very frequently aflfects the party denoted by the objective modification, but 
this does not by any means always liappen. See, view, contemplate, hear, and 
multitudes of other verbs, requiring an objective noun to complete them, 
express actions which produce no effect whatever on the so called passive 
object I see the sun, for instance ; what effect is here produced on the sun? 
Great perplexity arises in grammatical inqiiiries from confounding language 
which clothes thought, with the subject matter of thought — words with that 
which words signify. In the example, The smith struck the iron, physically 
considered — in relation to the fact expressed — the act of striking passe*' over 
(as the grammarians say) upon the iron — ^influences the iron. But when we 
consider the words — the means of draioing out or expressing the thought — it 
is the word iron which limits, restricts, exercises that species of influence which 
one word can exercise upon another, or, to use the terms which we have 
adopted, modifles or completes (not the action, be it observed, but) the verb 
struck. 

The terms govern and government, employed time out of mind in writing on 
grammar, have a tendency to mislead the learner, and, we suspect, have some- 
times misled authors and teachers, in reference to this matter. Certainly, if we 
may judge from the effect of these terms on our own mind, they have puzzled 
and perplexed both the teacher and the scholar. These terms have served 
for ages as a mysterious veil to cover much ignorance. The scholar is taught 
to say, that the active verb governs the accusative case. ]S"ow, to govern, 
surely, he thinks, means to exercise some kind of influence, what influence 
he cannot well imagine, but some mysterious influence ; and so he rests satis- 
fied that he has explained the construction. When these terms were first 
adopted, they were, no doubt, intended simply to import that an active verb 
takes after it an accusative case. The rule served (and may sthl serve) to 
direct the learner (in writing Latin, for example) that, when he has ascer- 



does the influence in certain cases pass between the subject of the proposition and the ob- 
ject of the verb ? Give examples. (9) Eepeat the illustration. (10) For what purpose are 
these objective nouns simply employed ?] 



§ 76.] OBJECTIVE MODIFICATION. 197 

tained that the verb employed belongs to the class of active verbs, the directly 
modifying noun must be in the accusative case. But it gives no explanation 
of the construction ; though, from the mystery hanging about the term gov- 
erns (a term generally expressive of energetic influence), it is, we presume, 
generally supposed that it does give a sufficient explanation of the nature of 
the relation subsisting between an active verb and an accusative case. The 
pompous assertion, active verbs govern the accusative case, when expressed in 
plain English, amounts to this and no more, active verbs are followed by the 
accusative case. But for what purpose ? N^o response to this question can 
be elicited from tlie big word government. And yet the use of this word 
checks all farther inquiry, and settles the whole matter to most people's satis- 
faction by its mere ponderosity. Besides, it leads directly to the error which 
we have noticed above, of concluding that, in a grainmatical point of view, 
some influence passes from the verb to the noun — that it acts upon the noun 
— that its action passes over upon it, and then comes in the appeal to the 
physical relation of the action to the object for an explanation, illogically 
confounding grammatical with physical, or metaphysical relations, and yet 
failing altogether in obtaining a solution which will apply universally. It 
does not apply, as we have seen, in the case of such verbs as see, (fee, followed 
by an accusative. 

We think it is full time to banish the term govern from our grammars, 
since it only puzzles and misleads the learner, either conveying no meaning, 
or a meaning different from that originally intended. There seems to^be a 
disposition among foreign grammarians to dispense with this grammatical 
term. 

When we say that a verb is modified or completed by an objective noun, 
we state the relation which exists between the two words, and by the very 
terms used refer to an explanation of the relation. When a boy says that 
such a noun is in the accusative case, and is governed by such a verb, and 
repeats the rule, " Verbs signifying actively," <fec., be it observed he has 
said no inore than that the accusative follows the active verb, without the 
least reference to the purpose which it serves, or the relation subsisting be- 
tween these words. If the rule implies more than this, it implies what, as 
we have shown above, is not a fact, viz., that the verb {as a word) exer- 
cises an influence over the word in the objective, whereas the reverse is the 
fact. 

What we have said above, applies to the use of the words govern and 
government, not only in the particular case before us, but generally in all 
cases where they are employed in grammar. The word which the gram- 
mars represent as the governing word, is the word which is passive, which 
is the recipient of whatever influence passes between the two words ; it is 
the word which is restricted, limited, modified, completed, by the other word. 
This applies especially to the construction above considered, which we have 
called the genitive case modification. We remember no instance in which 



198 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ '76. 

the "word -which the grammarians have called the governing word is not in 
reality the modified word, except it is when prepositions are said to govern 
a particular case. And here the word govern is so inappropriate, that gram- 
marians and teachers are beginning to employ the less imposing and (so far 
as it goes) more correct forms of expression, 'prepositions take after them, or 
prepositions are followed by such and such a case. Even here, the preposi- 
tion with the preceding word may be considered as jointly modified by the 
word which follows. 

(11) When a pronoun has a distinct form for the accusative 
case, this accusative form is subjoined to the verb as objective modi- 
Jication. (12) When any other kind of noun is employed as ob- 
jective modification, it is only by the order of arrangement, that it 
is grammatically distinguished from the noun employed as subject 
of the proposition. For example, let us form a proposition of the 
two nouns, William^ James^ and the verb excels. If we arrange 
them thus, William excels James, the arrangement indicates that 
William is the subject, and James the objective modification. If 
we invert the order, we entirely change the sense. James becomes 
the subject and William, the objective modification ; thus, James 
excels William. 

(13) As a general rule, the objective noun with its modifica- 
tions, when it has any, should follow next after the verb. It is, for 
the most part, awkward in prose to allow any other modification, 
except the noun or pronoun expressive of the perso72al object not 
preceded by a preposition (or what we shall call the dative modi- 
fication), to come between the verb and its objective modification. 
(See § '79.) The noun and preposition modification is sometimes 
placed between them. 

[(14) In our language, since the Anglo-Saxon period, there exists 
no distinct form (except in the pronouns), fur this species of modifica- 
tion. Even in the Anglo-Saxon period the accusative was seldom 
distinguished by a form difierent from the nominative. 



(11) Eepeat the remark in reference to pronouns. (12) How do we distinguish the ob- 
jective modification when it consists of any other kind of noun, from the subject noun f 
Eepeat example and illustration. (13) What is the usual place of tlie objective modification 
in the arrangement of the proposition ? 

[(14) Eepeat the remark in reference to a distinct form for this modification in English 
since the Anglo-Saxon period. And what is said of the Anglo-Saxon period ? 



§ 7 6.] OBJECTIVE MODIFICATION. 199 

(15) In some languages these cases have usually distinct forms, es- 
pecially in singular nouns of the masculine and feminine genders. 

(16) Such languages in consequence of these distinct case forms, 
are not so much confined to a fixed order of arrangement of the sub- 
ject noun, verb and objective modification as we are in the use of 
English. (17) Our usual order of arrangement is to place the subject 
noun in the proposition before the verb, and the objective modification 
after it. We follow this order generally even in the case of the personal 
pronouns, though in regard of these, possessing, as they do, an objec- 
tive form, this arrangement is not required, as in regard of other 
nouns, for the purpose of securing complete perspicuity. (18) The 
French generally place the objective modification when it is a pronoun, 
before the verb, because their pronouns like ours, have a distinct ob- 
jective form, though they are compelled, like us, and for the same rea- 
son, to place the objective modification when it consists of any other 
kind of noun, after the verb. (19) In the Latin and Greek languages 
the accusative employed in such assertions as objective modification 
being distinguished by a peculiar termination cannot be mistaken for 
the subject noun. Thus the words, Brutus C mar em occidit^ in what- 
ever order we arrange them, wiU always mean, Brutus killed O^sar. 

(20) The same applies to our own language when we employ a pro- 
noun which has an accusative form as objective modification ; thus James 
is a worthy man^ Ms friends esteem him. Wherever we place the pro- 
noun him in the second proposition, before or after the verb, the sense 
remains unchanged. (21) Whenever the predicate cannot be asserted 
of the passive object, w^e can place even a noun that has no accusative 
form before the verb which it limits without danger of rendering the 
sense obscure. Thus, James wrote a letter. Here we might place the 
objective word letter.^ before the verb without rendering the sense ob- 
cure. Thus, James the letter wrote. It is manifest that James is the 
subject, and not the letter, for the letter could not be asserted, with- 
out absurdity, to write James. (22) In prose we now rarely, as we 
have ah-eady hinted, take advantage of this facility of transposition. 



(15) What is said of some other languages in reference to distinct forms for the nomina- 
tive and accusative cases ? (16) What advantages result to these languages from the pos- 
session of distinct forms for these cases? (17) Eepeat the order of arrangement of subject, 
verb and objective modification. Do we follow this order when a personal pronoun serves 
as objective ? Is the same order absolutely necessary in this latter case ? 

(18) Eepeat what is said of the French in reference to arrangement. 

(19) Kepeat what is said of the Latin and Greek languages, and give the illustration. 

(20) Mention a case in which we could without obscurity use the same arrangement. 
(21) Mention a second case and repeat the illustration. (23) Do we often take advantage of 



200 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ '^6' 

(23) The pronoun, objectively employed, is sometimes for the sake 
of emphasis placed before the verb and subject noun, especially by our 
older writers. We have innumerable examples of this order of arrange- 
ment in the Bible. For example, '•'•Me he restored, and Tiim he 
hanged." — Gen. 41 : 13, " Thee have I seen righteous." " Him shall 
ye worship." ^'- Him will I confess." '"''Him declare I unto you." 
'-'• Them he also called — them he also justified," &c. (24) We may 
also find examples of other nouns placed before the subject noun, and 
the verb to which they serve as objective modification^ though these 
are not so numerous as the examples of pronouns thus transposed. 
" The darTcness he called night." — Gen. 1:4. " This people have I 
formed for myself."— Is. 43 : 21. 

(25) Transpositions of this kind occur much more frequently in 
poetry, both where a pronoun serves as objective modification, 
and where other nouns perform the same function. Examples, 
'■'■Him the Almighty power hurled headlong." — Milton. "Such 
place eternal justice had prepared," &c. — Id. " There the compa- 
nions of his fall — he soon discerns." — Id.* (26) In some cases the 



^ It sometimes happens, especially in poetry, that ambiguity is produced 
by these transpositions, as in an example from Gray's Elegy, noticed by 
Grant, "And all the airo. solemn stillness holds." Here "it is impossible to 
ascertain, from the mere form of expression, whether the air holds the still- 
ness, or the stillness holds the air." — Grant, p. 189. 

" When Pope says, Odyss., 19. 

'And thus the son the fervent sire addressed.' 
it may be asked, did the son address the sire ; or the sire address the son ? 
A httle attention would have prevented the ambiguity. If the sire addressed 
the son, the fine should run thus, 

' And thus his son the fervent sire addressed.' 
If the son addressed the sire — 

' And thus the son his fervent sire addressed.' "— Crombie, p. 273. 

Grant repeats this in the same words, and adds : " In such instances, the 
pronovm clearly indicates both the subject and object ; as, in sense, it refers 
pronominally, to the former for its antecedent, and in syntax (construction) 
associates, definitively, with the latter," — p. 189. 

We cannot altogether agree with these authors, that all ambiguity is re- 

this facility of transposition in prose? (23) What is remarked of the pronoun objectively 
employed, especially in older writers and in the Bible ? Illustrate by examples. (24) Are 
there examples to be found of common nouns so transposed ? Mention those given. 

(25) "What is said of transpositions of this kind in poetry? Eepeat the examples. 

(26) Give examples of the objective modification interposed between the subject noun 
and the verb. 



§ 76.] OBJECTIVE MODIFICATION. 201 

poets have placed the objective between the subject noun and 
the verb. We find two examples given by Mr. G. Brown. " His 
daring foe securely him defied." — Milton. " The broom itsyeUow leojf 
hath shed." — Langhorne. 

(27) We have already remarked in treating of the passive voice, 
or passive form of verbs, that the passive object of the verb actively 
used becomes the subject of the verb passively employed. That is the 
noun which serves as the objective modification in the active form of 
expression, becomes the subject in the passive form of expression. We 
have also observed that only those verbs which take this species of 
modification, and consequently admit of a passive form, are recognised 
as active verbs. We have three additional remarks yet to make in 
reference to this form of modification. 

(28) 1st Eemaek. — Many verbs classed as neuter, that is, which 
express an action which terminates in the subject, can take after them, 
as objective modification, a noun of kindred meaning ; thus we say, 
to sleep the sleep of death. To run a race. The sun runs his annual 
course. That man lives a life of usefulness. FigTit the good fight. 
Hence, too, we can say passively, His race is run. The battle \q fought. 
Such expressions as, " The brooks ran nectar," " The trees wept 
gums," &c., may be referred to this usage. (See Bullions' Eng. Gram., 
p. 163.) 

(29) 2d Eemaek. — Some verbs which, in their simple form are 
neuter, by taking a particle into combination with them so as to form 
a compound, or by taking a particle after them, come to admit of an ob- 
jective modification, and of a passive use. Thus look is neuter in such 
expressions as your friend looks well, looJcs tired, &c. But to overlooh 
takes an objective modification, and can be used passively ; as, the tower 
OVEELOOKS the PLAIN. The man is overlooTced by his former acquaint- 
ance. To go is neuter, expresses an action which terminates in the 
subject, and takes no objective modification (except sometimes one of 
kindred meaning, agreeably to the preceding remark, as, He goes a 
journey.) But undergoes and underwent, its past tense require an ob- 

moved from the line as amended by them. We do not think that the usage 
of (our) language is so completely fixed as regards this matter, that the pro- 
noun his, necessarily refers us to the subject noun, or that the determinative 
the (for this might be alleged) necessarily indicates it. We admit that the 
amended lines are le&s likely to be misunderstood. 

(27) Eepeat the substance of what is said about the passive form. 

(28) Eepeat the substance of 1st remark, and give the examples, 

(29) Do the same in regard to the 2d remark. 



202 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ '76. 

jective modification like other transitive verbs, and are sometimes used 
passively, as, He undergoes danger ; Danger is undergone hy Mm. The 
same may be said of understand^ compounded of under and the neuter 
verb stand. So also smiles is intransitive^ and seniles on may be con- 
sidered transitive, since it can be used passively. Fortune smiles on 
us ; We are smiled on l>y fortune. 

(30) 3d Remaek. — Active or transitive verbs are often used with- 
out an objective modification after them. Thus we say, That boy nei- 
ther reads nor writes., John writes well.^ The prince governed with mild- 
ness. Here the verbs are all active, but are used absolutely., that is, 
without restriction to any particular object ; though some appropriate 
object less or more definite is implied. (31) Yerbs employed in this 
way must not be confounded with those which are sometimes em- 
ployed in a neuter and sometimes in an active sense. This latter class, 
as we before observed § 45 : 17-23, are originally neuter, and when 
they become active it is in a distinct sense — often a causative sense, as, 
To run — neuter, To run a horse — active=ro malce a horse run. But 
transitive verbs used absolutely., retain the same sense as when fol- 
lowed by an objective modification. "We call a verb transitive because 
it generally takes an objective modification, not because such modifica- 
tion is always indispensable to express complete sense.] 

I^OTE. — In cases like those described in the second remark, it is not always 
easy to determine whether we should consider the verb and particle as 
forming a compound transitive verb, or regard the particle and the noun as 
forming a noun with preposition complement. For example, in the proposi- 
tions, The boy went trp the hill ; The man came down the hill. Shall we call 
went up and came down compound transitive verbs, and treat the noun hill in 
both cases as an objective case complement, or shall we call went and came in- 
transitive verbs, and up the hill and down the hill noun with preposition com- 
plements ? Since it is in consequence of the presence of the particle which 
usually serves as a preposition that the noun can be thus applied to modify 
verbs of this kind, it seems the most natural and the easiest way to treat the 
noun and particle as a noun with preposition modification. This, however, 
cannot always be done with compounds of this kind. Sometimes the neuter 
verb takes no noun after it in consequence of the combination with a parti- 
cle. Thus, to sit down admits no complementary noun, except it be united 
by another connective particle ; He sat down on a stone, in a chair, upon a 
rock, &c. Some verbs, taking a particle after them in this manner, are capa- 
ble of being modified in certain cases by nouns alone, and in other eases de- 



(30) Eepeat 8<i remark, and examples. (31) Eepeat the caution, and state the distinc- 
tion between active verbs used absolutely and verbs which are both active and Tieiiter.'] 



§ '76.] OBJECTIVE MODIFICATION. 203 

mand a noun and preposition modification. Thus we say, John looked down 
the hill. John looks down upon the plain. Neither when the compound 
verb still remains neuter, nor when another particle is employed in connec- 
tion with the modifying noun, nor when the compound verb is employed 
passively can the particle be considered as performing the function of a j^re- 
position in the noun and preposition complement. In all such cases we 
must consider the particle as directly (>/'^^se//' modifying the verb. Shall we, 
then, say that in the two propositions. He is smiled on by fortune, Fortune 
smiles on him, the word on performs different functions ? "We doubt whether 
it would be consistent with sound philosoj)hy to do so. Perhaps, whenever 
a neuter verb thus combined with a particle admits of being employed pas- 
sively without any change of sense, we should, when the active form is em- 
ployed consider the particle as blended with the verb — forming part of the 
verbal conception, and the noun which follows as a simple objective modifica- 
tion to the compound thus formed. (See § 81.) 

(32) In § 27 : 17, we stated that the verbal nouns ending in ing., 
and the infinitives admit the same complements as the kindred nerbs., 
besides taking (especially tbe verbal in ing)., the complements peculiar 
to nouns. The same may be said of the verbal adjective or imperfect 
participle in ing. (33) All these are transitive when the verb to 
which they are allied is transitive, and take after them an objective 
modification to complete their meaning. For example : Making 
CLOTHES ^s iAe tcdlor''s employment; To make clothes ^*s the tailo7''s 
employment ; That man making clothes is a tailor. Here the noun 
clothes is the objective modification in the first example of the verbal 
noun in ing making.^ in the second of the inji7iitive to make., and in the 
third of the participle in ing. (34) The perfect participle in combina- 
tion with the verb have., forming the perfect tense active, is also fol- 
lowed by an objective complement ; but this is perhaps to be considered 
rather the complement of have, than of the participle. (35) In prac- 
tical analysis it may be treated as the complement of the compound 
verb, without determining to which of the compound elements it 
properly belongs. (See § 59.) (36) The perfect participle when used 
alone, or in the formation of the passive, does not admit the objec- 
tive complement. (37) But, with this exception, all these verbals may 
be considered as susceptible of the modifications of their kindred 



(32) What has been stated in reference to verbals ? (33) In what are they like the verbs 
to which they are allied? Give example and illustration. (34) What is said of the per- 
fect participle in combination with the verb to liave? (35) How may we treat such com- 
binations in practical analysis ? (86) What is said of the perfect participle used alone or in 
forming the passive? (3T) Wliat is asserted of all A'erbals, with the exception stated? 



204 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 76. 

verbs, whether these verbs may be of the active, or of the neuter 
class. 

(38) This fact is not a consequence, as some of the grammarians 
leave us to conclude, of the formation of these words from verbs. It is 
not in truth as 'cer'hs^ that is, as implying assertion, that verbs them- 
selves admit of the several modifications which we are treating. (39) 
It is the predicate contained in the verb which receives aU these modi- 
fications, and this in consequence of its peculiar meaning — a meaning 
which whether expressed substantively^ adjectively^ or assertively^ is 
alike susceptible of certain peculiar modifications, of which other 
nouns and adjectives are not susceptible. (40) If we admit, with 
some of the best grammarians, that " the verb is a noun and some- 
thing more," namely a noun used assertively^ we may conclude with- 
out farther argument that even when these modifications are applied 
to a verb, it is to complete the noun in it, and if they modify a noun 
assertively used, it is perfectly natural that they should modify the 
same noun — the name of the same conception — substantively or adjec- 
tively employed. (41) In the example, TJiat man maJces Tiats^ making 
hats is asserted of the man ; maTcing with an objective modification. 
And if mailing when asserted is susceptible of this species of modi- 
fication, why not when used without assertion ? 

Exercises. — ^Analyze the following propositions. AU the words 
in italics may be disposed of by the help of the instruction already 
given in the preceding pages. The learner may be allowed to omit 
the words in roman characters on first going over the book. The 
abreviation Ob'^. Mn.^ may be employed in written exercises to repre- 
sent objective modification. 

Exercise I. — Jolin^s brother loves Mm. James wrote a letter. Pe- 
ter^ the farmer'^s boy^ drove the horses. The Romans conquered Eng- 
land. The Greeks planted many colonies. ThQ/aAher received his son's 
letter. Fever produces thirst. Geo7'ge''s farm produced sibTiiidsint c7^ops. 
Industry overcomes difficulties. Misery loves company. Telling false- 
hoods destroys a man''s reputation. To relieve distress is that virtuous 
man^ occupation. John finding his brother., led him home. 

Oral Analysis. — John\ brother loves him. The subject is John^s 
brother^ consisting of subject noun brother., singular number modified 



(38) Eepeat what is asserted in the two following sentences. (89) What is it in the verb 
which receives modification ? Eepeat the inference drawn from the fact that it is the pre- 
dicate which is susceptible of modification. (40) What conclusion may bo drawn from the 
admission that " a verb is a noun and something more "? (41) Eepeat the example and the 
illustration. 



§ 11.^ INFINITIVES USED FOR MODIFICATION. 205 

or limited by Johii's genitive case modification. The predicate is loves 
Mm.^ consisting of Iox)GS^ verb active, indefinite tense, third person sin- 
gular, modified by the objective pronoun Mm. 

ExEEOiSE II., III., &c. — Form a given number of propositions with 
objective modifications attached to the verbs. 

§ 77. (1) The infinitive or verbal noun is frequently used as an ob- 
jective modification of verbs. (2) "We have examples in John loves to 
play^ William wishes to write a letter. Here it is plain that to 'play 
and to write with its accompaniment a letter.^ stand exactly in the 
same relation to the verbs loves and wishes.^ as any other noun used as 
objective complement. 

(3) Many verbs which can take no other noun as an objective 
modification, can be completed by infinitives. (4) To this class belong 
several of the auxiliary verbs, which, with the help of an infinitive, 
form, the compound tenses. (5) When the infinitive serves as an objec- 
tive modification, it may be distinguished, like other objective modifica- 
tions, by answering to the question what ? As in the example above, 
if we ask what does John love f The answer is to play-^the objective 
infinitive. 

[(6) Many verbs take after them infinitives to complete them, which 
infinitives cannot be considered as standing to the verb in the relation 
of objective modifications. (7) We may here notice one use of the 
infinitive after verbs, very common in our language, and very distinct 
from an odjective modification ; we mean the infinitive employed to 
express a purpose or an end ; as. He came to see you=KQ came for the 
purpose of seeing you. He reads to learn-==llQ reads for the purpose 
of learning. This kind of expressions cannot be translated by the in- 
finitives of other languages, at least, without a preposition expressive 
of purpose prefixed to them.* 

(8) Formerly the preposition /or was often prefixed to the infini- 
tive when employed in this manner ; as, in Acts 17 : 26. " And hath 



* In French, pour =for, expressive of purpose, is prefixed ; in Latin, the 
infinitives cannot be employed at all in this way. 



§ 77. (1) For what purpose is the infinitive often employed ? (2) Examples and illustra- 
tions. 

(3) Repeat remark in reference to verbs which take only this kind of objective modifica- 
■tion. (4) Specify verbs of this class. (5) How may the objective infinitive be distinguished ? 

[(6) Do all infinitives stand in the objective relation to the verbs which they complete? 

(7) Mention a use of infinitives distinct from the objective use, and illustrate by examples. 

(8) What word was often placed before this kind of Infljiitive in English ? Give examples 
and remarks on this usage. 



206 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ YY. 

made of one blooJ all nations of men/c?" to dicell on all the face of 
the earth." '"What went ye out for to see.?"— Luke 7: 26. The 
use of the particle /(??' before these infinitives is still common in the 
language of the uneducated, but a regard to elegance, rather than to 
precision, has led the educated to stamp this form of expression as 
vulgar. 

(9) The infinitive used as an objective modification, we may dis- 
tinguish by the name of the objective ixfixitive ; and the infinitive 
used to express purpose by the name of the ixfinttive of puepose. 
(10) The learner may readily distinguish the objective infinitive, by 
the fact that the verbal noun in ing without a particle prefixed, may 
be substituted for it without destroying the sense. Thus in the pro- 
position. The l)oy learns to read, we may substitute the verbal noun 
reading for the infinitive to read, without materially affecting the sense 
(though, we admit, this would not be the most appropriate mode of 
expressing the assertion) ; The toy learns reading. 

(11) On the other hand, in the example. The loy reads to learn^ we 
cannot make this kind of substitution without entirely destroying the 
sense. (12) This infinitive of purpose, maybe distinguished by the fact 
that we can place the words in order before it, without injury to the 
sense, generally with advantage as regards perspicuity. The hoy reads 
IN ORDER to learn. (13) But if we introduce these words before an ob- 
jective infinitive, we either destroy, or change the sense. Thus, The hoy 
learns in order to reoA^ is either unmeaning, ungrammatical^ or means 
something different from The hoy learns to read. (14) It is generally 
easier to distinguish these infinitives by the fact that as the ohjectixe 
infinitive answers to the question tchat ? the infinitive of purpose an- 
swers to the question. For what purpose? or, In order to uhati 

(15) The infinitive of purpose might, perhaps with more propriety, 
be classed with those noun and preposition modifications.^ in which the 
preposition is by the usage of language generally suppressed, in some 
cases never used. 

(16) There are instances of the use of the infinitive where other 

(9) By what names may \re distinguish these two kinds of inflnitives ? (10) How may 
the learner know the ohjective infinitive ? Illustrate hy an example. 

(11) If we make the substitution of the verbal in ixg for the toflnitive of purpose what 
happens ? (12) How may we distinguish the infinitive of purpose ? (13) Can we introduce 
the words in order to before an objective infinitive? (14) How may these two uses of in- 
finitives be more easily distinguished in most cases ? 

(15) With what kind of modifications might the infinitive of purpose be classed, perhaps 
with greater propriety ? 

(16) Are infinitives used when there is a suppression of other prepositions besides /or ? 
Give example and Uliistration. 



§ VY.] INFINITIVES USED FOR MODIFICATION. 207 

prepositions are suppressed ; at least when we substitute the kindred 
verbal noun in ing which freely takes various prepositions before it, 
we supply other prepositions and not for qv in order. Thus, Boys de- 
light to play. Here when we substitute the verbal in ing., or gerund, 
we must prefix the preposition m; Boys deligM in playing. 

(17) These may also be classed with the noun and preposition modi- 
fications, in which the preposition is suppressed, both the connection 
and the relation of the modifying to the principal word being readily 
suggested to the mind without a spoken sign. 

(18) Infinitives are also used after neuter verbs, especially the verb 
to he^ in the same way as other nouns complementary of neuter verhs. 
(19) For example. To l)e virtuous is to be liappy. Here the first to lie 
is the subject noun, and the second to l)e is the infinitive complemen- 
tary of the verb is. To ohey is to enjoy. Here to obey is the subject, 
and to enjoy ^ infinitive complementary of the verb is.* 



* There is a peculiar use of the infinitive (often indicating ftture action) 
in such expressions as " The house is to build;" This house is to let, That man 
is to blame, &c., which seems to have been derived from the old gerund or 
future infinitive, as some call it — the A'^erbal form in the Anglo-Saxon which 
constantly has the particle to prefixed. (The ordinary infinitive in that lan- 
guage, as in others, was distinguished by a peculiar termination, and did not as 
in the present English consist of the naked root of the verb, and it never had 
the particle to prefixed to it.) This gerund is by some considered a dative of 
the infinitive. It is evidently formed by inflexion from the infinitive proper, 
generally by the addition of the syllable ne with (and sometimes without) a 
slight modification of the vowel of the preceding syllable ; thus, infinitive, 
TELLAN, to tell ; gerund or dative to tellanne, answering nearly to the Latin 
supine. So hyran, gerund to hyrenne, with the change of a into e. Lufian 
or Lufigan ; gerund to hfigenne. Many of the infinitives which follow 
nouns and adjectives seem to have had the same origin ; such as the infini- 
tives in the following expressions : Things to do. Irees to plant. Hard to 
BEAR. Fair to look on. Good to eat. Easy to learn, &c. It is not unlikely 
that many of the examples classed under the infinitive of purpose may have 
originated from this gerund, or dative of the infinitive. For more on this 
subject, see R. Taylor's additional notes to the Diversions of Purley, pp. 28, 
29. To the remarks of Mr, Taylor we are indebted for the matter of this 
note. We add an extract, bearing upon this subject, from Vernon's Guide 
to the Anglo-Saxon Tongue, p. 40: "The gerund, which is always preceded 



(17) Where may these infinitives be classed ? 

(18) What is said of infinitives used with neuter verbs? (19) Give examples. Eepeat 
illustration. 



208 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 7Y. 

(20) We may then recognise at least four distinct nses of the infi- 
nitive after verbs, which we may call respectively, the objective infi- 
nitwe^ the infinitive of purpose^ the infinitive complementary of the 
neuter verl)^ and the infinitive complementary of tlie active verb to be 
considered in the next section. Under these, and the class mentioned 
in the note, we may rank, we believe, nearly all the infinitives which 
follow verbs, and most of those, too, which follow other words. 

It will not be necessary for the learner in passing through a first 
course in this book to take notice of these distinctions. He may call all 
complementary infinitives, that is, all infinitives not employed as sub- 
ject nouns, infinitive modifications^ or complements of verbs^ nouns, or 
adjectives, according as they modify one or other of these classes of 
words. The infinitive used in comparison after as and than, will come 
under review when we treat of phrases used instead of accessory pro- 
positions for the purpose of modification, or what may be considered, 
if we please, as abbreviated p)rop)ositions, or contracted accessories. 
(See § 142: 9-15.) What is called the infinitive put absolutely, 
comes under the same classification. Like the infinitive used after as 
and than, it is an abbreviated manner of expressing a proposition, by 
means of an infinitive of purpose. (See § 142 : 18, 19.)] 

(21) The learner will remember that some verbs take after 
them exclusively, the infinitive without the particle to prefixed. 
(22) Of this class are the verbs, called auxiliary, employed in form- 
ing the compound tenses. (23) Besides these, the following verbs 
generally take after them an infinitive without the particle to ; hid, 
dare (=presume), feel, hear, let, make, need, see ; and sometimes, 
behold, have, know, observe, perceive. (24) Examples, / hid him tell. 



by to, and seems to be a kind of dative of the infinitive, answei's to our in- 
finitive present, active and passive, and to the Latin supines, infinitive future, 
active and passive, <fec., as. Come thu us t6 for-spillanne ? earnest thou to de- 
stroy us ? Latin, nos perditiim. H waether is ethre t6 cwethanne ? Whether 
is easier to say. Latin, facilius dictu. Eart thu se the to cumenne eart? Art 
thou he that is (art) to come ? Latin, Qui venturus est. Heo byth t6 lufi- 
genne ; she is (must be, or ought) to be loved. Latin, Amanda est." Hence 
the phrases, "house to let," "he is to blame," &c. We find another example 
of this in the expression, to wit, originally, to loittanne. 

(20) How many distinct uses of the infinitive after verbs may be recognised, and how 
may they be named resjjectively ?] 

(21) What form of the infinitive do some verbs take after them ? 

(22) What class always takes the form without the particle to ? (23) What other verbs 
take the same form of the infinitive after them ? (24) Illustrate by examples. 



§ '7'?.] INFINITIVES USED FOR MODIFICATION. 209 

/ dare go. I feel it move. I heard him, say. He lets him do it, &c.^' 
Most of these verbs take tlie complementary, or factitive infinitive. 

ExEECiSE I. — Examples of the objective irifinitive for analysis. John 
ho^jes to succeed. George loishes to learn. That man desires to overcome 
his rivals. They sought to enter the gate. Boys expeet to lecome men. 
Th.Qfarmer\ son Tjegan to plough. The rain ceased to fall. Justice 
ought to prevail. John dared not attempt that worlc. Seeh to secure 
virtue^ s rewards. He learned to restrain his passions. That man p>re- 
tends to l)e a patriot. 

Exercise II., III., &c. — Let the learner form a given number of 
propositions containing examples of this construction. 

[ExEECiSE IV. — Examples of the infinitive of purpose. You live to 
eat. We eat to live. She stoops to conquer. Men came to scoff. He rose 
to address the multitude. Men labor to gain wealth. Multitudes came 
to see him. Examples of verbs modified by both objective noun and 
infinitive of purpose. We sent John to being the letters. James 
called ME TO tell me the news. They invited him to show hini at- 
tention. They invited him to take part in their deliberations. 

Eemaek. — It may be observed that the first and last examples are 
different from the rest. In the other examples the infinitives express an 
action to be performed by the subject of the proposition, but in these 
the infinitive expresses an action to be performed by the person desig- 
nated as object direct, or passive object of the verb. Tliey invited 
HIM /or to take apart — in order that he might taTce a part .^ &c. All 
these infinitives may be considered as abbreviated accessory proposi- 
tions ; thus, you live to -E.A.T'^you live, that you mat eat; and so of 
the rest. 

Exeeoise v., VI., &c. — Construct a given number of propositions 
containing examples of the infinitive of purpose.] 

(25) What are called the perfect infinitives — that is, the infini- 
tive of the verb have, completed by perfect participles — are used 
exactly as the simple infinitives, chiefly, we think, as objective mo- 
difications. The learner may here be required to write a number 
of propositions having their verbs modifiied by these compound in- 
finitives. 

* It has been well observed by Grant (p. 193, note 2), "That, with the 
exception of let, the to is seldom or never omitted after the perfect participle 
used passively ; thus, 'We are bidden forest,' 'He was heard to say,' 'He 
was seen to move.' " 

(25) What is said of compound iufiuitives ? 

14 a 



210 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ YS. 

Examples. — John expected to tiate finished Ms task before this time. 
He intended to hate called upon you before his departure. This man 
seems to have lyeen wronged on that occasion, &c. 

Exercise— Form a given number of propositions with verbs modi- 
fied by compound infinitives, either active or passive. 

§78. (1) There are some active verbs which, besides the objective 
modification, take after them another noun complementary of the ac- 
tion expressed by the verb.'^ (2) Such are the verbs to make, to 
name, to call, to appoint, to elect, to constitute, to choose, to create. (3) 
We have examples of this use in such expressions as, " To make 
David kingP — 1 Chron. 12 : 38, and 32. They named him John. 
They called him John. The people elected him president, &c. 
Here king, John, president, express what was onade, named, called, 
in reference to the passive object. (4) This we may call the noun 
complementary of the active verb, (o) If we form a question, in- 
cluding as before, the subject and verb, and in addition the objec- 
tive modification or passive object, the answer to ivhat will be the 
noun complementary ; thus, what were they about to make David ? 
Ans. King — the complementary noun. What did they call him'? 
John — the complementary noun. 

[(6) This modification is, like the noun complementary of the neu- 
ter verb, more intimately combined with the verb, as regards meaning, 
than any other form of modification. If we speak of meaning (of the 
tiling expressed), it is the action of the verb modified by tliis comple- 
mentary noun, which passes over upon the passive object. If we 
speak exclusively of the words, the verb and complementary noun 



■^ Tills noun usually expresses some effect or result produced on the pas- 
sive object (the person or thing indicated by the objective modification) by the 
action expressed through the verb. The Germans have given the name /ac- 
titive to a class of modifications including this and (what we have ventured 
to call) the 7wun complenientary of the neuter verb, together with some other 
forms of modification yet to be considered. The Germans caU the object 
expressed by nouns, thus employed, the factitive object. We shall have 
more to say of this whole class of modifications below. (See § 90.) 

§ 78. (1) Eepeat what is said of some active verbs. (2) Enumerate some of tlie verbs 
which are susceptible of this modification. (3) Illustrate by examples. (4) What may we 
call this species of modification ? (5) To what question does it answer ? Example. 

[(6) Eepeat what is said of this modtfication with the substance of the iUustrations and 
the examples. 



§ 78.] NOUN COMPLEMENTARY OF THE ACTIVE VERB. 211 

combined, are limited by the objective modification. In the example 
above, it is the action of calling Jolin^ or of electing president^ that 
passes over on the party represented by him^ not the bare actions of 
calling and electing ; or, grammatically considered, the words calling 
Jolin^ and electing president^ are limited by him. In other words, 
calling John and electing president.^ may be regarded as compound ex- 
pressions, indicating a single action, and the objective serves to limit 
this action. 

(7) It is because of this intimate connection with the part of the 
predicate expressed in the verb, that we have ventured to style this 
modification by way of distinction. The noun complementary ; and yet 
this close connection is not indicated by the arrangement ; since,] 

(8) The objective modification is placed between the comple- 
mentary noun and the verb. 

[ (9) The objective modification is thus embraced within the com- 
pound expression which it limits. 

(10) When verbs with these two distinct modifications come to be 
used in the passive form, they still retain the complementary noun as 
a modification, whilst the objective modification becomes the subject of 
the proposition ; as, He is called John^ He is elected president* 



* It is to he observed that, in languages which possess a form for the ac- 
cusative, distinct from the nominative, or subject form of the noun, the com- 
plementary 7ioun does not retain the accusative form when attached to the 
passive verb. It always accommodates its form to that of the noun affected 
by it. When that noun, after the active verb, takes the accusative form as 
objective modification, the complementary noun assumes the same form ; and 
when it becomes subject noun to the verb passively employed, the comple- 
mentary noun assumes the same form, and stands as nominative after the 
verb. It may, when thus used, be called the noun complementary of the 
passive verb. 

In fact, it then scarcely differs from the noun complementary of neu- 
ter verbs. If, in the example. He is called John, we consider attentively 
the compound expression made up of the participle called, and the noun 
John, we shall find that it performs much the same grammatical function, in 
reference to the verb is, as a noun or adjective would perform. He is what ? 
Ans. Called John. 



(7) Mention the reason of the name given to this modification.] 

(8) Where is it placed in reference to the verb and objective ? 
[(9) What is remarked in reference to the objective modification? 

(10) What happens when verbs susceptible of this kind of modification come to be used 
in the passive form ? 



212 STRUCTURE OF la:n-guage. [§ Y8. 

(11) The verbs ask and teach., take two modifying nouns after 
them, in the same manner as the class of verbs just considered ; 
but the comioUmentary noun stands in a very different relation to 
the objective noun following these verbs. In the preceding con- 
struction, the complementary noun expresses what the passive ob- 
ject becomes through the action expressed by the verb. Thus, 
The i^eojAe elected Washington 'president, ^^yq president expresses 
what AYashington became by the election of the people. But when 
we say, The master taught John grammar; He asTced John a question ; 
grammar and question do not express what John becomes. And 
hence, in languages which have an accusative form, and in which 
verbs of asking and teaching take two accusatives after them, in the 
active voice, the noun expressive of what is asked or taught retains 
the accusative form, when the proposition is expressed passively. 
Thus, in the proposition, John ivas taught grammar, the word 
equivalent to grammar, in Latin, would be in the accusative form. 
(See Xote.) 

(12) In some of the constructions, where two modifying nouns 
affect the same verb, there is a suppression of the infinitive to be. 

(13) Thus, in the proposition. They thought him a knave, the 
words to he may be supplied, and then the construction will come 
under the class about to be mentioned, in which the verb is modi- 
fied by an objective noun and a complementary infinitive^ 

iN'oTE. — On the construction with ask and teach. — Query ? Is it not be- 
cause ask and teach are actions wliich may have for their passive objects, 
both persons and things, that they can take two accusatives after them ? 
We say both to ask a person, and to ask a question. When question is used 
alone after this verb, it would be considered an objective modification, per- 
haps, of that class (mentioned before) made by a noun of kindred meaning — 
the only kind Trhich some verbs admit, and perhaps the only kind expressive 
of a thing which this verb admits. (It admits, more frequently, a comple- 
Tneoitary infinitive with an objective of a person.) Xow, when we have oc- 
casion to indicate the person whom we 'ask, and that what we ask is a ques- 
tion, it is natural to place both after the verb, as we should place them if 
singly used as objective modifications. Thus the verb comes, as it were, to 

(11) Eepeat the substance of what is said of the verbs ash and teach, giving illustration 
by examples. 

(12) What is said of some of these constructions -when two noims modify the verb ? 
(13) Illustrate by an example] 



§ 78.] NOUN COMPLEMENTARY OF THE ACTIVE VERB. 213 

have a double objective modification, limiting it in reference to two classes of 
objects — the person asked and the object asked. 

The same reasoning may be applied, perhaps more successfully, to the 
verb teach. This verb, in regard of objective modifications, expressive of 
the thing taught, is not, like ask, confined to nouns of kindred meaning. 
Like verbs completely transitive, it may take a great number of objective 
modifications of this kind. Thus we say, to teach reading, writing, mathema- 
tics, or any art or science ; and with infinitives, to read, to write, to draw, (fee, 
&Q. We also say, to teach a pupil, an apprentice, &c. When only one or 
other of these classes of nouns is used separately after teach, we call it the 
objective modification ; it expresses the passive object ; and nouns of both 
kinds can be used as the subject, when we emj)loy the passive form of this 
verb. We can say. The scholar is taught, and grammar is taught. (We can- 
not, indeed, say with propriety. Grammar is taught the scholars, as we can 
say, The scholars are taught grammar.) Now, when we have occasion to in- 
dicate both the party taught and the subject taught, we place both nouns, as 
a kind of double objective modification, after the verb. The verb teach may, 
in fact, be considered, as expressing two different actions, as having two dis- 
tinct meanings. One, when followed by the name of a rational recipient of 
instruction, and another, when followed by the name of the subject taught. 
When we say. He taught a boy, and He taught Grammar, what is indicated 
as done in reference to the boy, in the first proposition, and to grammar, in 
the second, is manifestly altogether difi'erent. 

When we say, He taught the boy grammar, we may be regarded as com- 
bining both uses of the verb teach, expressing a double meaning by a single 
sign, followed by the modifications appropriate to both meanings. Still, as 
in the verbs before considered, the action of teaching, first modified by the 
subject taught, is finally modified by the name of the person, and not in the 
reverse order. In the example above, teaching modified by grammar, is 
limited by the word boy, and not, we think, teaching the boy, by the word 
grammar. Grammar, we consider in such examples, as the more intimate 
modification of the verb, and as performing the function, for the time, of a 
sort of noxm complementary, though it cannot with propriety be called the 
factitive object. It does not express what the boy, for example, becomes 
through the action of the verb (he does not become grammar), and conse- 
quently, when the passive form is used, and the person becomes the subject 
notcn, the name of the subject taught does not assimie the case of the person 
taught, but retains the accusative form in languages which have a distinct 
accusative form, and should be treated in our language as an objective modifi- 
catio7i, employed with the passive fprm of the verb. We shall find other 
instances below of an objective modification employed with passive forms. 
(See § 79 : 25). 

Additional Observations on the IS'oun Complementary of the Active 
Verb. — Some grammarians analyze all such propositions as. They elected him 



214 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 18. 

president, by suppl}^g the infinitive to he, They elected him to -b-e president ; 
and then they treat the construction as a case of an infinitive after a verb. 
As, these grammarians class together without distinction all infinitives com- 
ing after verbs, thej give themselves no farther trouble about the matter. 
" One verb governs another in the infinitive." This settles the question in 
an easy, if not in a satisfactory manner. But there are, as we have already 
seen, essential distinctions between the functions of infinitives following verbs, 
especially in om- language. And this kind of infinitive performs a peculiar 
function, entirely distinct from the objective infinitive, if not from the infin- 
itive of purpose. Hence we designate it, The Infinitive Complementary of 
the Active Verb ; or, if we understand that here it expresses a purpose, The 
Infinitive of Purpose Complementary of the Active Verb. It is, however, 
unnecessary to distinguish the infinitives of purpose into those which follow 
neuter and those which follow active verbs, since, in both situations they 
perform the same function and stand in the same relation to the rest of the 
proposition, the connecting word being suppressed. Thus, in the proposition 
John sent a messenger to bring a physician, either /or or in order are implied 
before the verb to bring, and it stands related to the proposition Hke the 
infinitives of purpose already considered, and like them is not capable of 
being rendered into other languages (Latin, for example) by a bare infini- 
tive. 

Like the noun complementary of an active verb, the infinitive to be, with 
its complementary noun, expresses what the passive object — the direct object 
is made or becomes in reference to the subject of the proposition. Thus, in 
the proposition. They elected that senator to be president, it is expressed that 
the senator is made or becomes president through the action of electing on the 
part of those represented by the subject pronoun they. 

We may add that, in our opinion, the propositions, They elected him presi- 
dent, and They elected him to be president, are not exactly equivalent, and the 
latter, as we think, cannot always with strict propriety be substituted for 
the former. The first is the proper expression, when the office to which the 
party is elected or appointed in any mode is well known, generally recog- 
nised, definite, as, for example. King, Judge, Speaker of the House of Com- 
mons, President of the United States, Roman Consul, Dictator, <fec. The 
form with the infinitive to be is more properly employed when the office has 
had no antecedent existence, or is not commonly recognised, or permanently 
established. Thus we say of a party having no previous organization, that, 
They chose such an one to be their leader in a particular enterprise, or to be 
their president or chairrnan for a particular occasion. 

The reader will please also observe that many cases occur in which two 
nouns employed after a verb — the one serving as objective modification, the 
other as complementary in the manner described — do not admit the interpo- 
sition of the infinitive to be. For example. The father named his son John, 
or, The father called his son John. We cannot resolve this, by saying that 



§ TS.] INFINITIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF THE ACTIVE VERB. 215 

it is equivalent to, TJie father na7ned his son to be John, or called him to be 
John. 

We maj remark here that the explanation given of this kind of construc- 
tion by those who treat it as a case of apposition, considering the comple- 
mentary noun as an apposition to the objective noun, is altogether unsatis- 
factory. This construction and apposition (as understood by the best gram- 
marians) are totally different. What we have already said (§ 69 : 28-33) in 
explaining the difference between the noun complementary of a neuter verb 
and a noun in apposition will equally aj^ply in this case with some slight 
change of terms. The noun complementary does not, as in apposition, serve 
merely to explain the objective noun, but completes the meaning of the verb, 
and it is through the verb that its connection with the objective noun is 
effected. An example in which both constructions occur will illustrate the 
difference between the noun in apposition and the noun complementary, to 
the satisfaction of all intelligent readers. The people elected Cicero, the cele- 
brated orator, consul. It is manifest to every one who understands the pro- 
position, that there is a marked difference between the functions performed 
in this construction by the noun orator and the noun consul. 

(14) Infinitives are frequently employed as noims complementary 
with active verbs. (15) This use of the infinitive ought to be care- 
fully distinguished, from the uses before considered, if we would 
give an exact and satisfactory analysis of the language. (16) If we 
form a question with the subject, the verb and the passive object, 
the answer to the words. To be what, or To do what, will be the 
infinitive complementary of the active verb. Examples : They chose 
him to he their secretary. They chose him to he what ? Ans. To he 
their secretary — infinitive complementary with its modifications. 
He entreated the people to dispyerse. He entreated the people to do 
what ? Ans. To dispei'se — infinitive complementary.* 



* Infinitives of purpose are often employed, together with an objective 
modification after active verbs. These may be distinguished from the other 
class of infinitives by supplying an answer not only to the question. To do 
what ? but also to the question For what purpose ? Thus, They sent him to 
announce their coming. They sent him for what purpose ? Ans. To announce 
their coming. The other infinitives will not answer appropriately to the 
question, For what purpose. This infinitive of purpose after an active verb, 
followed by an objective noun may be considered as at once an infinitive 
complementary and an infinitive of purpose, or as an infinitive of purpose 
used to complete an active verb. 

(14) What remark is made in reference to infinitives ? (15) Repeat the caution. (16) 
To what question do infinitives thus employed answer ? Give examples and illustration. 



216 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 19. 

(17) Care must be taken to distinguish constructions of this 
kind, where two accusatives follow a verb from the construction next 
to be considered, in which a verb is modified by a dative and accu- 
sative noun or infinitive, and also from the accusative and infinitive 
used as a contracted accessory. The means of distinguishing these 
constructions will be more readily comprehended after we have con- 
sidered them both. 

Examples foe Aistaltsis. — He formed us men. The Romans called 
Cicero father of his country. The people elected Marius consul. 
The Senate declared Cincinnatus dictator. The Government appointed 
him envoy to France. '"''Men called him Mulciier.^'' " Crown her 
queen of all the year." " We made him our leader.'''' The Company 
appointed him manager. " The hing created MonTc Duke of Albe- 
marle." His neighlors chose him delegate to represent (inf. of purpose) 
them in the convention. " God made a wind to pass over the earth." 
" That made the earth to treiribleP " Thou wilt make me to UteP 
'' The Lord shoM make men go over dry-shod." 

Exercises L, II., III., &c. — Form a given number of propositions 
with active verbs modified both by an objective and a noun, or infini- 
tive complementary.* 

§ 79. The Dative Modification, or Personal Object after 
THE A^erb. — (1) The dative modification consists of a noun or pro- 
noun employed without an intermediary word to express the party 
to which (sometimes the party /o?' which) the subject is represented 
in the proposition as performing the action expressed by the verb. 

(2) Example : The master gave John a hook. Here John expresses 
the party to which the master performed the action of giving a book. 

(3) Leaving words and referring to things^ this modification is called 
by grammarians the personal object, as the objective modification is 
called the passive object. (By modern French grammarians it is 
called the indirect object, as the objective modification is called the 
direct object) (4) These names apply not to the words, but to the 



* A line of distinction might possibly be drawn between the infinitive 
complementai'y of the active verb and the infinitive of purpose after the 
active verb. The most marked difi'erence is, that the infinitives after such 



(17) Repeat the caution about distinguishing this from another construction. 
§ 79. (1) Describe the dative modification. (2) Give example and illustration. (3) By 
what names is this modification sometimes called ? (4) To what do these names apply ? 



§ Y9.] DATIVE MODIFICATION. 21'? 

things signified, and not always very appropriately to them, as we 
have had occasion to remark already in treating of the name pas- 
sive object. 

(5) This dative modification is not confined to active verbs ; but 
the most striking (the best marked) examples of its use, are found 
in connection with this class of verbs. (6) The dative together with 
the objective modification, most frequently follows the verbs allow, 
bring, buy, deny, gain, get, give, obtain, offer, jpay, prepare, procure, 
promise, provide, refuse, sell, send, tell, yield. (7) Perhaps it fol- 
lows some others, which, like these, indicate an action having refer- 
ence to a personal object. 

(8) Both nouns and pronouns (perhaps more frequently pro- 
nouns), are used to express this dative modification. 

We give a few examples for analysis. In each proposition the 
verb is modified both by a noun in the accusative, and a noun in 
the dative. 

(9) In the order of arrangement, the dative modification al- 
ways precedes the objective modification. 

ExEECiSE l.—They allowed me credit. John brought me a seat. 
William bought his brother a farm. The porter denied Mm admit- 
tance. He gave me a present. They offered him a commission. He 
paid John the debt. Prepare us a place. He promised them a ride. 
The host provided them lodging. I refused him my consent. Th.Q far- 
mer sold me a horse. My garden yielded me a large crop, &c. 



verbs as make, constitute, appoint, elect, call, oiame, <fec., which are more 
strictly factitive, or complementary infinitives, cannot be so readily converted 
into accessory propositions as the infinitives which express more definitely a 
purpose, end, design, of the action expressed by the principal verb. 

It is to be observed that the verb make sometimes takes after it a dative 
and accusative in our older writers, " I made me great works — I made me 
gardens," &c. ** Riches certainly make themselves \Yings.'" It also sometimes 
takes as modifications an accusative and an infinitive of purpose; as, "Make 
haste to help me." "Their feet make haste to shedhlood." " God made the 
greater light to rule the day," &c. 

(5) Is this modiJieaUon confined to active verbs? Eepeat the additional remark. (6) 
Enumerate the verbs most frequently followed by a dative and objective raodijication. 
(7) Eepeat remark after No. 7. (8) Name the classes of words employed to express the 
dative modiJicaUon. 

(9) What is the order of arrangement of the dative and objective modification? 



218 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ Id. 

In analysis of these examples, first, read off the whole subject and 
the whole predicate separately ; next point out the verb, tell to Avhich 
class it belongs, and its mode, tense, number, person ; then point out 
the subject noun, telling class, number, gender, person, repeat rule of 
concord between subject noun and verb; then turn to the verb and 
say that it is modified by the objective (here name the word), and 
the dative (naming the noun in the dative). 

For example, ' allowed^ in the first proposition is modified by the 
objective credit, and the dative me. After this, the objective and da- 
tive nouns may be classed and described. 

In the analysis the words in Eoman may be omitted as usual. 

Exercise IL, III., &c. — Let the learner write a given number of 
propositions formed with the verbs above given (or similar verbs, if he 
can find them), followed by appropriate dative and objective modi- 
fications. 

(10) Some of this class of verbs admit of being modified by an in- 
finitive and dative. (11) For example. Me allowed me to ride, Prom- 
ised me to send, Told Mm to go, &c. 

Exercise. — Let the learner form a given number of propositions 
with such of the verbs in the above list as admit an infinitive and 
dative, accompanying the verbs in each proposition by both these 
modifications. 

[Remark. — (12) It will be noticed that when an infinitive holds the 
place of an objective modification, the dative still takes precedence in 
the order of arrangement, though, as we shall show more fuUy here- 
after, the objective modification has a closer relation with the verb in 
sense, than the dative, and though in fact it is not the verb alone, but 
the verb modified or completed by the objective noun or infinitive, 
that is completed by the dative. (13) If the noun or pronoun ex- 
pressing the dative modification is placed after the objective (which is 
its natural place in the order of sense), it must be preceded by the 
preposition to. (14) This proves the kind of relation which these 
dative nouns hold to the verb, and that they are not to be confounded 
with accusatives complementary of the active verb. (15) Two cir- 
cumstances distinguish the dative modification from the noun comple- 



(10) In what manner are some of these verbs which admit a dative modified ? (11) Give 
examples. 

[(12) Repeat the substance of the remark. (13) When the noun or pronoun expressing 
the dative modification is placed after the objective modification, by what must it be pre- 
ceded? (14) What does this prove? (15) Mention the two circumstances which distin- 
guish the dative modification from the noun complementary of the active verb. 



§ YO.] DATIVE MODIFICATION. 219 

mentary of the active verb ; first, as we have just remarked, the da- 
tive always takes precedence of the objective modification, whereas 
the noun complementary always follows it ; and, second, when the 
objective modification is not an infinitive, the dative can be replaced 
without injury to the sense, by the noun or pronoun with the prepo- 
sition to (or sometimes /(?r) placed after the objective modification. 

(16) We cannot prove the nature of this construction so directly 
when an infinitive follows the dative, because we cannot then replace 
the dative by a noun and the intermediary words to ov for after the 
infinitive ; but we ascertain the construction which the verb requires 
when a noun or pronoun (as objective modification) follows it, and 
may safely conclude, that what is a dative in this case, must remain a 
dative when an infinitive follows. (17) For example, if in the propo- 
sition, JoTin told Mm a story ^ the pronoun him is a dative modification, 
we may be assured that it performs the same function in the proposi- 
tion, John told him to lorite.'] 

I^OTE. — Th€ mode of analyziBg this construction hitherto generally 
adopted, by saying that the noun is in the objective case, and that the pre- 
position TO is suppressed, appears to us improper. If the preposition to had 
ever been used with these datives when placed before the objective modifica- 
tion, this explanation of the construction might be allowed. But we believe 
that to has never, in any period of the language, been used before nouns or 
pronouns employed to express a dative sense, when placed before any kind 
of objective modification, whether noun, pronoun or infinitive. 

This construction is in reality a remnant of the ancient Anglo-Saxon 
usage of a dative modification, which has continued in our language after the 
distinct dative form by 'w^\ich it was anciently indicated has entirely disap- 
peared, except in the pronouns. What we call an accusative or objective 
case in the personal pronouns, has at least full as much claim to be consider- 
ed a dative as an accusative. In most of the pronouns, the same form served 
the functions of both dative and accusative ; and, as regards the pronoun 
masculine of the third person, him was in fact the ancient dative and not 
the accusative. The accusative had another form altogether distinct. Them 
also descends from the dative and not from the accusative plural, which in 
the Anglo-Saxon corresponds with the nominative plural. (See § 155.) It 
is therefore inconsistent with the history of this construction, to say that 
there is a preposition suppressed before the noun. In the ancient language 
the function of the word was indicated by the dative form ; the same is now 
indicated by the place which it holds in the arrangement before the objective 



(16) What is said of the means of ascertaining this distinction when an infinitive seryea 
as objective modification ? (17) Illustrate by example.] 



220 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 79. 

modification. ]S"o complement, as far as we remember at present, except a 
dative of this kind, can with propriety always come between the verb and 
the objective modification, when it folloios the verb. The mode in which 
we have ventured, in opposition to established usage, to treat this construc- 
tion, is not only more consistent with the history of our language, but it 
prepares us better to account for the singularity, that these verbs when pas- 
sively employed have sometimes (contrary to the general laws of language), 
what serves as a dative to the verb {actively employed) for their subject 
noun. 

"What we have said above might in consistency be carried much farther. 
Besides the fact which we shall notice presently, that many datives after 
what were originally intransitive verbs, have come to be considered objec- 
tives, and the verbs which they modify, in consequence, to be recognised as 
transitive, the nouns and pronouns which follow prepositions were originally 
often real datives in form and sense. For instance, in any of the above ex- 
amples when we place the noun or pronoun, which serves as dative modifica- 
tion after the objective, and place the preposition to before it, it is as much 
historically a dative as before. That is to say, the Anglo-Saxons employed 
the preposition to generally with the dative case, never with the accusative. 
Many of their prepositions, like to, do not take after them an accusative. 
But it would serve no purpose except to perplex the student to revive dis- 
tinctions which in the present usage of the language are marked neither by 
a change of form, nor by a particular arrangement, and which can now 
serve no practical purpose. 

There is one relic of the old English dative, which we must no- 
tice in order to explain a number of expressions, novp" obsolete, but 
of frequent recurrence in our older writers. i(18) We allude to the 
following impersonal verbs preceded by a form of one or other of the 
pronouns, most generally by me ; me seems, me listeth, me thinks, 
and its past tense, me thought. (See % QQ '. 8-14.) (19) The pro- 
noun in all these is a dative modification. (20) Me seems is equiva- 
lent to it seems to me ; me listeth, or me lists, to it listeth to me. 
(21) Me thinks is also equivalent to it seems to me, and me thought 
to it seemed to me. 

N'oTE. — This verb (think) is now obsolete in om* language. It must 
not be confounded with the verb think now in use. In many of the northern 
dialects, and (what is most to our purpose) especially in the Anglo-Saxon, 

(18) Enumerate certain obsolete forms of expression, whicli are to be explained by a re- 
ference to the ancient use of a dative case. (19) What is the pronoun in all these expres- 
sions ? (20) What are me seems and r/ie listeth equivalent to ? (21) What is me thinks 
equivalent to ; and me thought its past tense ? 



§ 'ZO.] DATIVE MODIFICATION. 221 

the parent language of the English, there were two verbs nearly alike in 
form, the one meaning the same with our now existing verb to think, the 
other nearly what we now express by the verb seem. 

To think. To seem. 

Anglo-Saxon, thencean, thencan or thinean. Thincan. 

Past T. Thohte Thuhte, 

German. Denken, P. T. Dachte. Dunken. P. T. Dunkt. 

These two verbs became confounded in form at an early period in our 
language, if not sometimes in the later Anglo-Saxon ; but the two distinct 
meanings were retained and recognised as distinct down to the middle of the 
seventeenth century, if not later. See Mr. R, Taylor's additional notes to 
the Diversions of Purley, and Dr. Latham's English Language, 

We add a few examples in illustration of what has been said of these 
forms of expression from Mr. Taylor's judicious and learned notes, p. xxxi. 
" Thus Shakspeare : 

Prince. Where shall we sojourne till our coronation ? 
Glo. Where it thinks best unto your royal self. 

Richard the Third, act 3, sc. 1. 
as it stands in the first copies, though since altered to seems." 
" ' Me seemeth good that with some little traine 

Forthwith from Ludlow the young prince be fetcht.' 

Richard the Third, act. 2, se. 2. 
'Let him do what seemeth him good.' — 1 Sam. iii. 18. 
' Him ought not to be a tiraunt.' — Leg. Good Wom,, 429. • 
'The garden that so likid me.' — Chauc. R. Rose, 1. 1312. 
* So it liked the emperor to know which of his daughters loved him best.' 
— Gesta Rom., ed. Swan, 1. Ixxii., ch. 20. 

* He should ask of the emperor what hi7n list.' — lb, Ixxxv. 41. 
' Well me quemeth,' (pleaseth) Chauc. Conf. Am. 68. Also our common 
expression, * if you please ;" where you is evidently not the nominative to 
the verb, but is governed by it, (complement to it,) q. d. 'If you it please ;' 
yet by a singular perversion of the phrase, we say, ' I do not please,' ' If she 
should please,' for ' It does not please me,' ' It should please her.* 
' Stanley. Please if your majestic to give me leave 

I'le muster up my friends and meete your grace. 
Where and what time your majestie shall please. 

Richard the Third, act 4, sc. 4." 
It will be seen from these exai^ples that impersonal verbs (or verbs hav- 
ing a proposition or phrase for their subject) without the representative it, 
were once common in our language, and took generally a dative comple- 
ment. See another example in Par. Lost, b. II., 942. 

" Behoves him now both oar and sail." 



222 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 79. 

There are many other latent datives in our language now commorilj re- 
garded as objectives, and as expressing the passive object of the verbs wliich 
they modify. But as these datives have no longer a distinct form, and fol- 
low verbs which do not take a second noun (without a preposition) after 
them, we have no ready means of detecting them and distinguishing them 
from accusatives. We cannot detect them by changing the order of arrange- 
ment as when the verb takes both a dative and accusative modification. 
For instance, the verb obey, when first introduced into the language, we pre- 
sume, always, like the Latin and French words from which it is derived, 
took after it not a direct, but an indirect object — a dative, not an objective 
modification. To illustrate this we may give the following examples ; " To 
whom your fathers would not obey." — Acts *? : 39. "His servants ye are 
to whom ye obey ." These examples pi'ove that the translators of the Bible 
considered the verb obey, susceptible, in their time, of a dative and not of an 
accusative modification, since they have evidently introduced the preposition 
to in these two places, lest whom should be taken for an objective modifica- 
tion. 

"Wiclif in his translation often uses the preposition to before the noun or 
pronoun which follows obey, showing that where the preposition is omitted 
the case is still a dative. For examj)le, " And thei obeien to him.'" — Mark 
1: 27, In the following example we have proof that both command and 
obey were in Wiclif 's time followed by a dative, not by an objective construc- 
tion. " He comaundith to wyndi8 and to the see, and thei obeien to hhn" 
We still say, approach to a place, as well as approach a place, truiit to a per- 
son or thing, or in a person or thing, (the latter expression is very often used 
in the translation of the Scriptures,) as well as trust a person, escape from 
a danger, as well as, escape a danger. This shows that when the preposition 
is omitted, the noun after these verbs is a dative, and not an objective. There 
are several other verbs which take -after them nouns without a preposition, 
and which nouns we now recognise as objectives, but which, it may be fairly 
presumed, were originally proper datives, and the verbs instead of being 
active or transitive, as we now consider them, were neuter verbs, and in- 
capable of taking after them an objective modification. Such verbs are op- 
pose, serve, succeed, succour, from the Latin, and answer, bid, forbid, follow, 
forswear, withstand, from the Anglo-Saxon, which in these languages are fol- 
lowed by datives. If no examples can be found of a preposition employed 
to attach nouns to these verbs, it should not surprise us, as we find nouns 
with the force of datives so often attached to active verbs without a prepo- 
sition. We may add to the list above the verb profit, which in the times of 
Wiclif sometimes took after it a noun with the preposition to, thus proving 
that it was not regarded as transitive. — "And the worde that was herd profi- 
tide not to hem" (them). 

From these remarks, the learned reader will discover that our language was 
originally more similar than it now seems to be to the Latin and Greek Ian- 



§ 19.1 DATIVE MODIFICATION. 223 

guages, in reference to a certain class of verbs which, in those languages, take 
after them always a dative modification. The class corresponding in 7neaning 
in English, seem very generally to have originally taken the same form of 
modification. The fact has been concealed by the gradual disappearance of 
a distinct dative form. 

It requires much greater knowledge of the sources from which our lan- 
guage is derived, and of its early history, than can be expected in those who 
are engaged in the study of grammar, to detect these datives, which have 
come insensibly to be regarded as accusatives. Besides, they have been 
long recognised as standing to their verbs in the same relation as other ac- 
cusatives, and the verbs have, consequently, come to be recognised, and 
are now employed, in all respects, as active verbs. They generally take a 
passive form, having for its subject the noun which follows and modifies 
their active form; and this is usually considered the test of a transitive 
verb. 

"We do not, therefore, intend to introduce any innovation in the practical 
analysis of propositions in which such verbs occm*, though we have thought 
that it would contribute to a proper understanding of the dative form of 
modification in our language, to direct the attention of the curious reader to 
the facts now presented. 

In reference to those datives which, together with an accusative, follow 
active verbs, the case is different. These datives cannot be analyzed as ob- 
jective modifications ; and when we must adopt a mode of treating them dis- 
tinct from the objective modification, it is best, we think, to state the facts, 
in accordance with the real history of our language. We may as well admit 
the fact, that nouns and pronouns placed between the active verb and its 
objective modification, have the force of datives, without any reference to 
the suppression of the prepositions to ov for. 

We have also found ourselves obliged to recognise the dative, in treating 
the impersonals Me seems, Me thinks, &c., because this is necessary to the 
correct explanation of these antiquated expressions. There are some other 
impersonals generally preceded by the representative word it, followed by 
nouns which had originally a dative force. Instances are found above, among 
the examples quoted from Mr. Taylor's notes ; please is one. 

The remarks which we have made on the dative, afford a key to the 
explanation of such expressions as "Woe is me!" and "Oh, wel is him." — 
Sternhold and Hopkins. Me and him are simply datives, not accusatives, as 
is commonly supposed through inattention to the fact, that one of these 
forms (him) was once used exclusively in the dative sense ; and the other 
(me) used both in the dative and accusative sense. There are likely many 
other expressions which may be readily explained in the same manner. Per- 
haps Ah me is to be thus explained. The expression " Wo worth the day" 
(Ezekiel 30 : 2), is also thus explained. Worth is a verb (meaning to he, to 
become) current in the Anglo-Saxon, and anciently used in English, and still 



224 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 79. 

in German ; day stands as dative modification to this verb. The meaning 
is, Woe he to the day. — See Bishop Lowth's note, quoted below. 

We find four examples of worth, with its dative modifications, in the fol- 
lowing four lines of Chaucer : 

Wo worth the f aire gemme vertulesse; 

Wo worth the hearbe, also, that doth no bote {i. e. help, remedy). 
Wo worth the heauty that is routhlesse ( i. e. without compassion), 
Wo worth that wight that trede ech under fote. 

Troilus and Ores. ii. 344. 

Here gemme, hearbe, heauty, wight, are all datives to worth, in then* re- 
spective propositions='Woe be to the fair gem, <fec. 

It deserves to be remarked, as a curious fact in the history of the transi- 
tion of words from their original meanings and construction, that persuade 
now takes after it an accusative of the person, and what is equivalent to a 
dative of the thing (that is, a noun preceded by the preposition to), though 
in Latin, both suadeo and persuadeo take the dative of the person and accu- 
sative of the thing ; as, persuasit id eis=He persuaded this to them. We 
Bay, He persuaded them to this. 

(22) There is anotlier fact in relation to datives, placed between 
active verbs and their objective modification, which must not be 
forgotten, since it is essential to the explanation and correct analysis 
of certain forms of expression of frequent recurrence in our lan- 
guage. (23) The fact to which we refer is this, that those verbs 
which, actively employed, admit these datives followed by accu- 
satives, when the expression assumes the passive form, often take 
what served as dative modification (or indirect object) in the 
active form for their subject noun. (24) To illustrate by an ex- 
ample ; we say in the active form. The porter refused him admit- 
tance, and in the passive form. Admittance was refused to him by 
the porter, or using the dative without a connective, Admittance 
was refused him. Here we employ regularly (in conformity with 
the universally recognised laws of language) admittance, the objec- 
tive in the active form for subject in the passive form. But we also 
very often (perhaps more frequently) say. He was refused admit- 
tance by the porter, usurping the pronoun which served as dative in 
the active, for subject in the passive form of expression, contrary to 

(22) Eepeat the remark under No. (22). (23) State the fact referred to in the last re- 
mark. (24) Illustrate what has been said by an example. (25) "What will the learner here 
observe ? 



§ 79.] DATIVE MODIFICATION. 225 

the general analogies or laws of language. (25) Here the learner 
will observe, that the passive verb retains after it the objective modi- 
fication, as happens with the passive forms of teach and asJc^ and 
some other verbs in the ancient languages, which, like these, take 
two objective modifications in the active form.'^ 

(26) OATJTioisr. — Be careful not to confound with these verbs which 
take two objective modijications^ those which take with the objective 
a noun complementary. It will be remembered that such noun com- 
plementary^ though used after the passive verb, stands in a very diifer- 



■* Some grammarians contend that these passive forms of expression, in 
which the indirect object of the active form serves as subject, are to be re- 
jected as altogether improper and ungrammatical. There is, no doubt, a 
kind of irregularity in these passive forms. We have admitted this, in say- 
ing that they are contrary to the general analogies of language. They are 
rare in other languages, though not exclusively confined to English. But it 
is too late now to proscribe these forms as bad English. They are used by 
our best authors, and by the best speakers. 

We suspect that this construction has originated in an insensible extension 
of the same usage to these verbs, followed by a dative and accusative, which 
at first perhaps extended only to verbs, followed by two accusatives. We 
can with propriety say, both Grammar is taught, and The scholar is taught. 
Hence we say with propriety in the passive. The scholar is taught grammar. 
And from such expressions as, The scholar is taught grammar, probably an 
insensible transition has been made to the usage in question, where as in the 
passive use of teach, the person affected by the action becomes the subject, 
in forgetfulness or disregard of the fact that this person does not stand in 
the same relation to the active verb — is not used as in the case of teach to 
express its direct object. 

Whatever may have been the oi'igin of this use, there is no doubt that it 
has now become a settled idiom of our language ; and it is vain for the 
grammarian to attempt to eradicate it. His business is to exhibit the lan- 
guage as it is, not to attempt to make it what he fancies it should he. When 
a form of expression is not yet firmly established — universally received — in 
the language, but apparently making its way towards general usage, the 
grammarian may with propriety employ his efforts to suppress it, if it does 
not harmonize with the general laws of language, or if it in any way offends 
good taste. But what is once established, he had better, like a man of mod- 
esty and good sense, admit, and spend his efforts in accounting for its recep- 
tion, in contravention of general principles, rather than in the Quixotic, 
attempt to extirpate all the apparent anomalies of speech. 

(26) Eepeat the caution. 



226 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§'^9* 

ent relation to the noun which serves as otjecthe of the active, and 
subject of the passive form of proposition, varies its case as this noun 
varies its function, and never holds the relation of objective modification 
to a passive verb. 

"We subjoin a few examples for the purpose of illustrating these pe- 
culiar passive forms of expression, and also, incidentallv, the use of 
the dative modification. These passives v^hich take the indirect object 
for their subject are confined to a few verbs (exclusively, we believe, 
such as we have enumerated above) which take a personal or indirect 
object without a preposition between them and their objective modi- 
fication. Even these are not all employed passively in the manner 
described. We present below the two active forms of expression 
made with each verb, the one with^ the other without a preposition 
before the indirect object, and the two passive forms — one regular 
with the passive object for its subject, the other (we may call) idiom- 
atic^ with the, personal object for its subject. 

Act. with Preposition, The minister offered a pension to Mm. 

Act. without Prep. The minister offered Mm a pension. 

Pass. Eegular, A pension was offered Mm^ or to him, by, &c. 

Pass. Idiomatic, Se was offered a pension^ by, &c. 

Act. with Prep., He promised a present to me. 

Act. without Prep., He promised me a present. 

Pass. Eegular, A present was promised me^ or to me. 

Pass. Idiomatic, / was promised a present. 

To make the learner familiar with these constructions let him write 
a given number of propositions after the model exhibited above (exem- 
plifying the two active and two passive forms), with the following 
verbs : allow, deny, pay, refuse, tell. Let him afterwards analyze his 
examples, or he may, when writing the propositions, accompany them 
with the abbreviations used in a written analysis. 

When called on to analyze the idiomatic passive form, for example, 
I was p>romised a^ present., he will say, as in the analysis of the passives 
of «5-^ and teach., that the verb was promised is modified by the objective 
noun present. If any question is made about a passive verb taking an 
objective modification, the learner may reply that, The verbs allow, 
DENT, OFFER, PAT, REFUSE, TELL, c&c, taMug after them a datwe and 
objective modification., sometimes., when passively employed^ talce the da- 
tive or personal object., instead of the passive object for their subject.^ 
and retain the same objective modification as lohen actively employed. 

IS'oTE. — ^The grammarians have generally classed ask and teach with those 
verbs which take an accusative and dative to modify them. But we think 



§ 79.] DATIVE MODIFICATION. 221 

that ash and teach differ widely from this class of verbs. AsTc and teach do 
not naturally take after them a noun with the preposition to, to express the 
person who is asked or taught. It is not, we think, in accordance with the 
general usage of the language to say, I asked a question to him, or, A ques- 
tion was asked to him. "We do not say that such expressions are never em- 
ployed ; but we say that they are not so consistent with ancient and well 
received and respectable usage as to say, / asked him a questio7i, or. He was 
asked a question. Ita%tght grammar to him, though perhaps sometimes used, 
appears to us, if not absolutely ungrammatical, at least, inconsistent with 
ancient and established usage, as well as clumsy. In the passive we always 
say. He ivas taught grammar, not Grammar was taught to him. The form of 
expression. Grammar was taught him., is perhaps awkward, but it appears to 
us less objectionable, than Grammar was taught to him. 

In a word, the two nouns which follow ask and teach, are both to be re" 
garded as accusatives, and the employment of these two accusatives after 
them, is to be accounted for perhaps in the manner attempted above (§ ^78, 
Note) ; and these two verbs, as we have before said, form a peculiar class by 
themselves. 

On the contrary, the verbs allow, deny, offer, &q., can always take after 
them in both active and passive forms, their personal object preceded by the 
preposition to, without violence to the sense ; and when no preposition is 
used, and the personal object is placed before the passive object in the order 
of arrangement, the case is always to be considered a dative, never an accusa- 
tive. For example in such expressions as, John promised him assistance ; 
Assistance was promised him by John, him is a dative, never an accusative. 
Even when preceded by the preposition it was in the ancient language a 
dative ; for the preposition to often preceded a dative, never an accusative. 
But this belongs to another place. 

The fact, that we have retained in so many instances the dative use in 
our language after the dative /orm had disappeared, seems to have escaped 
the notice of most of our grammarians, and hence their analysis of certain 
constructions is far from satisfactory. Bishop Lowth suggests in a note that 
when personal pronouns witliout a preposition or intermediary, are used to 
express the personal object after a verb, they may possibly be datives. Dr. 
Latham has brought the dative use of the pronouns, and the fact that the 
forms now called objective or accusative cases, all served anciently as da- 
tives, prominently to view. But as far as I recollect, he has not noticed 
that nouns under the same circumstances serve as datives, viz., when the 
noun expressing the personal object is placed next the verb, and before the 
accusative. "We transcribe the chief part of Dr. Lowth's note, as it both 
sanctions and illustrates the view w6 have given of this construction. The 
reader will notice that we have used some of his examples already. 

The note is appended to an observation, contradicted by his better judg- 
ment expressed in the note. The observation is repeated by every genera- 



228 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 80. 

tion of his followers, to the neglect of his valuable and well supported sug- 
gestion in the note. The best things of Dr. Lowth are not those which have 
been most freely appropriated by some of his followers. The observation is as 
follows: "The prepositions to and /or are often understood, chiefly before 
the pronoun ; as, ' Give me the book ; get me some paper ;' that is, to me, 
for wie." 

]v^oTE. — " Or in these and the like phrases, may not me, thee, him, her, 
us, which in Saxon are the dative cases of their respective pronouns, be con- 
sidered as still continuing such in the English, and including in their very- 
form the force of the prepositions to and for ? There are certainly some 
other phrases, which are to be resolved in this manner : ' Wo is me /' The 
phrase is pure Saxon, ' Wa is me :' me is the dative case ; in English, with 
the preposition, to line. So, ' methinlcs ;' Saxon, ' methincth ;' kjxoi So^e?. 
'As us thoughte.'' — Sir John Maundevy lie. 'The Lord do that which seemeth 
him good.' — 2 Sam. x. 12. 'Well is /wm, that dwelleth with a wife of un- 
derstanding.' 'Well is him, that hath found prudence.' — Ecclus. xxv. 8, 9. 
*Wo worth the day!' Ezek. xxx. 2, that is, 'Wo be to the day.' The word 
worth is not the adjective, but the Saxon verb weorthan, or worthan, fieri, to 
he, to become, which is often used by Chaucer, and is still retained as an 
auxiliary verb in the German language." — Intro, to Eng. Gram., pp. 169, 
ITO, ed. lYTS. 

§ 80. [Order of Sequence of Modifications or Complements. — 
Before dismissing this subject of modifying nouns attached to verbs 
and nouns without the intervention of other words, it may be useful 
to say something about the order of sequence of different forms of modi- 
Hcations or complements. We have already touched this subject inci- 
dentally, but it is proper to invite the attention of the student more 
directly to a subject of such importance to a satisfactory knowledge of 
the structure of language. 

We have noticed, as we proceeded, the sequence in order of ar- 
rangement of the several modifications which we have treated, (2) 
To recapitulate, the noun in apposition generally follows the pjrincipal 
noun ; the noun adjectir;ely employed precedes it ; the iioun comple- 
mentary of the neuter veri follows the verb ; the genitive case modifi- 
cation precedes the principal noun ; the objective modification usually 
follows the verb, and comes next to it, except there is a dative modifi- 
cation.^ in which case this latter takes precedence ; when there is an 
objective and a noun complementary after an active verb, the objective 
regularly takes precedence of the complementary noun. 

§ 80. [(1) What is meant by the Order of Sequence of Modifications ? Ans. The order 
in which modifications follow the principal word. (2) Recapitulate what has been said in 
reference to the order of sequence of the several modifications already treated. 



§ 80.] ORDER OF SEQUENCE OF MODIFICATIONS. 229 

But anotlier question presents itself in reference to the sequence of 
modifications, or the manner in which modifications or complements 
follow each other — a question of the greatest importance in the inves- 
tigation of the structure of language, and one to which our ordinary 
grammarians have unfortunately paid little or no. attention. Indeed, 
the imperfect, clumsy, irregular, unsatisfactory mode of grammatical 
analysis hitherto generally adopted tends to hide this question from 
the student of grammar. (3) The question to which we allude is this ; 
when two or more modifying words are attached to a principal word, 
which has the precedence in sense or which is most intimately con- 
nected in sense with the principal word ? (4) Before we enter on the 
direct examination of this question, it is important to remark, 
that when two or more complements of dififerent kinds are attached 
to the same principal word, they are not attached to it separately 
and independently of each other, with no reference to any thing 
but the principal word. (5) On the contrary, the complement most 
intimately connected in sense with the principal word, and the 
principal word, bound together as one compound expression, are 
both completed by the complement which follows in the order of 
sense. (6) Next, it will be remarked, that the question about the order 
of sense or meaning is not the same with that in reference to the order 
of arrangement. In other words, the order of arrangement in speaking 
and the order of sense — of thought — do not always coincide. (V) In 
fact, as regards the instances of two modifications of distinct Tcinds 
attached to the same principal word which we have been examining, 
the order of thought and the order of the arrangement of the words 
most commonly differ. We have already called attention to this fact 
in the note upon the modifications which follow the verb teach. 

(8) To return to the original question; let us take an example 
first of the construction in which the active verb is followed by an 
ohjectixie modification and by a noun complementary. (9) The Senate 
declared Cincinnatus Dictator. (10) Here the question is, which of 
the two nouns, Cincinnatus and Dictator .^ used to modify the verb de- 
clared., has the more intimate connection with it, or which, taken in 
connection with the verb, is further modified by the other. (11) 
This question we already answered in giving the name complementary 

(3) state the question which now presents itself for consideration. (4) Repeat the pre- 
liminary remark. (5) Complete the remark In reference to the most intimate complement 
and principal word, &c. (6) Eepeat the remark about the order of sense and the order of 
arrangement. Express the remark in other words. (7) What in fact happens in the modi- 
fications already considered in reference to this matter ? 

(8) Of what construction do we first select an example ? (9) Eepeat the example. (10) 
What question is raised in reference to the example ? (11) Where has this been already 



230 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 80. 

to nouns performing functions similar to those of the word Dictator 
in the above proposition. (12) The comple'nientary noun has the 
more intimate connection with the verb ; it completes the expression 
of the action performed by the senate, which complete action is limited, 
by adding the word Cincinnatus to the person bearing that name. 
(13) In other words, the action declaring Dictator is restricted to Cin- 
cinnatus, and not the action of declaring alone, unmodified, limited to 
Cincinnatus, nor the action of declaring Cincinnatus restricted by 
Dictator. 

(14) Again the same question recurs, when we employ both an 
objective and a dative modification after a verb, which of these two 
modiiications is most intimately, most directly, or first in sense con- 
nected with the verb — the accusative or the dative f For example — 
l^lie instructor gave John a ioolc. (15) Here it is manifest that the 
objective modification, book, comes first in sense, though it stands last 
in the order of arrangement. It is not gao)e alone, but gave a tooTc, 
that is restricted, limited, or, to use the more general term, modified 
by the dative him. (16) It is perfectly obvious, when the same 
function is performed by the word Mm, preceded by the preposition 
to, that the objective modification comes first in the sequence of sense, 
as it then does, also, in the order of arrangement ; The instructor gave 
a lyooTc to him ; here gave a l)ooT& is limited by to him. (17) So, also, 
in reference to aU noun and p7'eposition modifications (or adjuncts, as 
some call them — a name perhaps too vague, but very convenient on 
account of its shortness) following active verbs with objective 
modifications. First, as regards sense, the verb is modified by the 
objective, and then the compound expression, made up of the verb 
and the otjective noun, is modified by the noun with a 2yreposition. 

(18) So far, then, as regards those forms of modification of the 
verb already considered, the regular sequence in reference to sense is, 
that the complementary noun, when there is one in the construction, 
has the closest connection with the verb, and the expression formed by 
the verb and it comes under the influence of the modifications super- 
added. The objective noun comes next in the order of sense, and all 



answered ? (12) Eepeat the answer. (13) Repeat the latter part of the answer in other 
words. 

(14) State the question of sequence in application to the objective and dative modifica- 
tions; and furnish example. (15) Which of these modifications comes first in sense? Il- 
lustrate by example. (16) Illustrate by the case in which the dative function is performed 
by the pronoun preceded by the particle to. (17) How is it in reference to the sequence of 
the noun and preposition and objective modifications? 

(18) Eepeat what is said by way of recapitulation. 



§ 80.] ORDER OF SEQUENCE OF MODIFICATIONS. 231 

other forms of modification, such as datives and nouns, with preposi 
tions, &c., affect the expression made up of the verb and objective 
noun ; or, in case there is present a complementary noun as well as 
an objective noun, affect the expression made up of the verb, the com- 
plementary noun, and the objective noun. 

(19) We shall be able hereafter, without difficulty or tedious ex- 
planation, to apply these remarks in noticing the sequence of the 
several forms of modification which -remain to be treated. For 
the same order of sense may be traced, and ought to be carefully 
traced, in all cases, not only when we attach modifications consisting 
of single words or phrases, but also when we employ accessory 
propositions to modify the subject or predicate of the prmcipal 
proposition. 

(20) Such is the mode in which the most complicated propositions 
are built up — such is their structure or constetjction. "VVe lay the 
foundation with the subject NOUN^and the veeb. To each of tliese 
we add the first complements necessary to qualif}^ them (to express 
more exactly our meaning) ; and to what we have thus constructed, 
still other complements, one after another, till we have completed the 
intended structure ; just as in erecting a house, we commence with the 
foundation, and add stone after stone, not to the foundation alone, 
but to the part of the structure already raised, till the whole is 
finished,* 

* The same order it is our wish to introduce in the analysis of language. 
We endeavor to follow in the resolution of every proposition the order of 
thought pursued in the construction of the proposition. The method we 
adopt is thus designed to be at once analytic and synthetic, or constructive. 
By this method, the learner is made familiar with the art of building up 
sentences, and not merely taught to take up the disjecta membra — the scat- 
tered fragments of the structure — without a proper regard to their place in 
the building. In other words, we examine the parts of the building re- 
garded as a structure standing in all its just proportions, and not the mass 
of unconnected ruins which results from its violent demolition. 

We think that this plan is much better calculated to guide the young 
student to the correct construction of sentences, to cultivate a nice perception 
of the defects of ill-constructed sentences, and to prepare him to amend with 
ease and promptitude any imperfection which he may detect. The plan pur- 
sued is intended to make him, if natural good taste is not wanting, an ac- 
complished architect of that curious and complicated, and beautiful and most 
useful structure — Language, 



(19) Repeat the substance of the remark under No, 19. 

(20) The same of No, 20. 



232 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 80. 

(21) We must not, however, be understood as asserting that every 
modification is added to the whole structure already laid. (22) Often, 
as we shall presently see, a principal word is affected by two or more 
co-ordinate modifications or complements, sometimes with a connec- 
tive indicating co-ordination between them ; both standing in the 
same relation to the ijrinciiml word, but entirely independent of each 
other's influence, and not, as in the examples above noticed, the modi- 
fication last applied affecting the 'principal word, as already modified 
by the other.] 

We have now enumerated and considered all the modifications (so 
far as we know) which consist of a noun separately employed, whe- 
ther in its original or in its inflected forms, with the exception of a 
few modifications, which we purposely reserve, till in the next section 
we have prepared the way for their easier explanation. We next pro- 
ceed to treat of a class of modifications which consist of a noun in 
connection with another word essential to i\ie form of modification.* 



* We mean "another word" which is not a mere modification of the 
modifying word. A word modifying a noun, used itself as a modification, 
is of common occurrence in the structure of language, but this word is not 
essential to the form of the modification into which it enters. It has simply 
a modifying word for its principal. Take as an example the following pro- 
position, John killed the shepherd's dog. Here " dog,'" the objective modifi- 
cation of "killed," is itself modified by the genitive "shepherd's." But this 
is not essential to the form of modification which we call objective. The 
learner is already prepared to treat such constructions, as he has been in- 
formed that the modifications of which nouns are susceptible, are applicable 
to them, not only in their function as subjects, but in all their functions. 
But when, on the contrary, we employ a noun arid preposition to mo- 
dify a word, the preposition is essential to the form, and cannot be treated 
as a modification of the noun. Some consider the noun a complement of 
the preposition. We rather consider (as will appear below) the noun follow- 
ing the preposition as a complement of the principal word, after being first 
modified by the preposition. 

(21) Eepeat the caution given under No. 21. (22) Illustrate the caution.] 



CHAPTER V. 

OF PEEPOSITIONS. 

§ 81. (1) Our attention has been hitherto, almost exclusively, 
confined to the two great classes of words which form the funda- 
mental parts of every proposition — the verb and the noun — the 
noun employed as subject noun, and the noun employed in the se- 
veral ministering functions which it performs, loithout the aid of 
other words, in modifying both verbs and nouns. 

(2) We now introduce a third class of words employed exclu- 
sively for the purpose of modification, called by grammarians pre- 
positions. (3) This Latin name pre2oosition, indicates i^Aa^ is 
placed before. (4) It has been given to this class of words because, 
at least in one of their functions, they are placed (in Latin almost 
always, and very generally in other languages) before the noun 
which, with them, forms a complex modification of some principal 
word. (5) This name can scarcely be defended as appropriate, 
since it does not apply to this class of words in all the functions 
which they perform in language, nor even universally in a single 
function ; but as it has obtained the sanction of long and general 
usage, we shall be contented to employ it. 

(6) As the prepositions are comparatively few in number, we 
subjoin a list of the words generally recognised as belonging to this 
class, that the learner may have it under his eye in following our 
remarks. It would, perhaps, save time and labor in his future 
studies in grammatical analysis to commit this short list of words 
carefully to memory. 

§ 81. (1) Kepeat the substance of the introductory remark. 

(2) What new class of words is now introduced ? (8) What does the name preposition 
Indicate ? (4) Why has this name been given to the words of this class ? (5) Can ttie 
name be defended as perfectly appropriate, and why not? 

(6) What reason is assigned for giving a list of prepositions ? 



234 STEUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§81' 

(7) A LIST OF THE WOEDS GEISTEEALLY CLASSED AS PEEPOSITIONS. 

A-bout, A-bove, A-cross, After, Against, A-long, A-mid, A-midst, 
A-mong, A-mongst, A-round, At, A-tbwart, Be-fore, Be-hind, Be-low, 
Be-neatb, Be-side, Be-sides, Be-tween, Be-twixt, Be-yond, By, Down, 
For, From, In, In-to, Of, Off, On, Over, Bound, Since, Tbrougb, 
Througb-out, Till, To, To-ward, To-wards, Under, TTnder-neatb, Un- 
til, Un-to, Up, Up-on, TVitb, Witb-in, Witb-ont. 

(8) We may add to tbese a, a coiTuption of 07i, in, un, some- 
times of of; and o' still used before tb.e noun clock (and formerly 
before otber nouns) as equivalent to o/, or, perbaps, sometimes on, 
and pronounced nearly like a, tbe preposition. On and in are 
equivalent in Anglo-Saxon, or, perbaps, ratber in is merely a varia- 
tion of on.'^ 



* We have omitted in the list above several words commonly classed with 
the jDrepositions, but which, manifestly, belong to classes of words whose 
functions are better defined, and more easily comprehended. The preposi- 
tions have been a source of much perplexity to the grammarians, and the in- 
consistencies and absurdities -wdth which even learned and philosophical 
authors are chargeable in reference to them, have brought reproach on the 
science of grammar. "W"e therefore adopt the principle of classing no word with 
them that can claim a place elsewhere. The words which we have excluded 
are except and save, obviously the imperatives of the verbs except and save, 
and capable of being always treated as such ; concerning, excepting, regard- 
ing, respecting, touclmig, which are participles taking an objective modification ; 
during, notwithstanding, accompanying a noun in the case absolute, not fol- 
lowed by an objective, as the grammarians erroneously represent ; and near, 
nigh, next, which are adjectives taking after them, not an accusative, but a 
dative case, in the same manner as the adjective like, ujilike, &c. Round should, 
perhaps, also be excluded ; but as it occurs in constructions that could not be 
easily analyzed if round is simply considered as performing the functions of 
either an adjective or a noun, w^e have thought it best to retain it. But is 
also classed here as well as with the conjunctions. "We doubt whether the 
accusatives which sometimes follow but, are not always really the objective 
modifications of a verb suppressed. If so, but is in such cases, as elsew^here, 
a conjunction. That a word not of the class of verbs takes after it an accu- 
sative (the grammarian knows not why), is ample reason to place it among 
the vexatious prepositions. Doing so is always, we presume, to be taken as a 
confession of ignorance. 

(7) Eepeat the list of prepositions ; first the simple prepositions, and afterwards the com- 
pound marked by a hyphen (-). 

(S) Eepeat the remarks made in reference to the prepositions a and o\ 



§ 81.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 235 

[(9) The words enumerated above perform three distinct functions 
in our language. (10) We do not mean that each of them severally 
performs these three functions, but that there are three functions per- 
formed by the class taken together ; of these functions some perform 
perhaps but one, some two, and some, again, all three. 

(11) 1st. Many of them, together with certain other words never 
used sei^arately^ and therefore called inseparable prepositions^ are used 
in forming compound words. (12) They are prefixed to verbs, nouns, 
adjectives, and to other prepositions, and in this case generally modify 
the signification of these words. (13) We have examples in down-fall^ 
for-give^ in-stilly off-spring^ on-set^ over-Jiow^ understand^ up-hold^ 
witJi-draw^ &c,, and in several of the prepositions in the list above, of 
which the component parts are separated by a hyphen. (14) It will be 
observed that many of the above list are compounds of a, con- 
tracted or corrupted from on^ and 6e, another form of ty united with 
other words, generally nouns or adjectives ; as, a-cross^ a-long^ a-midst, 
a-round^ te-Mnd^ he-side^ &c.* 

(15) 2d. Some of these prepositions are employed alone, and as 
separate words to modify verbs. (16) (In this case some say that the 
preposition is used adverMally.) (17) We have examples in such 
expressions as Keep> off, equivalent to Keep at a distance; Come 
on; He walks or rides abovt ; Cast up) accounts; '•'' I Tceep under my 
lodyP 

Note. — In the last two examples, and especially in the last, it cannot be 
alleged that the preposition connects the nouns accounts and hody with the 
verbs, or unites with those nouns in forming a compound modification in 
the manner about to be described under the next function of this class of 
words. Under is certainly not, as in the case we are about to describe, a 



* In fact, when we have removed all the compounds formed by the 
union of a preposition with words of other classes, and by the union of two 
prepositions from the list presented above, the number remaining is very 
small. We have rendered tlie distinction between the simple and compound 
prepositions visible to the eye of the learner, by separating the component 
parts of those certainly known to be compound by a hyphen. 



[(9) How many distinct functions do these words perform ? (10) Eepeat the remark in 
reference to their performance of these functions. 

(11) What is the first-mentioned use of these words, and what other words are employed 
for a similar purpose ? (12) To what kind of words are they prefixed to form compounds ? 
(13) Illustrate by examples. (14) Eepeat the remark about compound prepositions. 

(15) Describe the second way in which these words are employed. (16) What is this 
use of a preposition commonly called ? (17) Illustrate by examples. 



236 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 81. 

modification coming in tlie order of sense between keep and body ; but body 
is either the objective modification of keep under, regarded as a compound 
verb, or else the expression, keep my body, is farther modified by under = to 
keep my body under. The first is perhaps the correct view of the subject. 
In this case all the difference between this form of function and the first is, 
that in the first the preposition is placed before and unites with the verb in 
forming a compound word, in the last the preposition remains a separate word 
and comes after the verb. In this latter use of prepositions, our language 
resembles the German. This language throws much light on the subject 
before us, since it affords numerous examples of compounds of this kind, in 
which the preposition in certain constructions is connected with the verb, 
as in No, 1st above ; in other constructions it is detached from the verb, and 
frequently appears after several modifications at the close of the proposition. 
When employed in this way after verbs, and not followed by a noun, the 
grammarians generally call these words adverbs. We think it is more con- 
sistent, more convenient, and attended with less perplexity to the learner, to 
give them always the same name, since in the distinct functions which they 
perform, they retain the same sense, and since a part of them must be re- 
cognised as prepositions, because, as we have shown elsewhere, they render 
the verb to which they are subjoined transitive, and capable of assuming a 
passive form. Thus we say, / look upon him, and This man is looked upon ; 
look, which is intransitive without the preposition, becoming transitive and 
capable of being employed passively, when the preposition upon is added 
to it. 

If we should feel inclined to deviate from the practice of calling these 
words invariably by the same name, it would be to distinguish those occa- 
sions when some of them perform the function of conjunctions. Even this 
function differs in their case little from their most conspicuous function, that 
which we arrange third and last in order. In the one case, they are used in 
connection with a noun to modify a verb, in the other with a proposition in- 
stead of a noun to serve the same purpose. It is only necessary, therefore, 
when we treat of conjunctions, to remark that some of the prepositions are 
employed to perform similar functions. 

(18) 3d. We now come to the third function which these words 
perform ; when united with a noun they serve as a modification to a 
verb, or to another noun, sometimes, as we shall see hereafter, to an 
adjective. (19) This use is common to all these words, and is that 
from which their name is derived, because they are most commonly 
placed before the accompanying noun. It is the use chiefly regarded 
in our treatises on grammar, the only use recognised in much that is 
taught concerning these words. 

(18) What is the third function which these words perform ? (19) Repeat what is said 
in reference to this function. 



§ 81.] NOUN AND PREPOSITION MODIFICATION. 23T 

(20) A preposition and noun thus employed, we shall call the noun 
and PREPOSITION modification or complement.* (21) This form when 
applied to a noun we may call noun and preposition modn. of a noun ; 
and when applied to a 'verh^ noun and preposition modn. of a xerT). 
(22) We believe that all the words in our list of prepositions may be 
employed in company with nouns in forming modifications for verbs ; 
but some of them cannot be so employed in forming modifications 
of nouns. t 

(23) The preposition most frequently employed in forming a modi- 
fication of nouns is of. (24) This preposition, followed by a noun, 
expresses nearly the same meaning as the genitive case modification, 
already considered. Thus, The Tiopes of man^ and Man^s Jiojjes^ are 
equivalent expressions. So of The reicard of xjirtue^ and Virtue^s re- 
ward^ &c. 

* We are strongly tempted to borrow from some of our predecessors the 
name adjimct for this species of modification, because of its brevity. The 
name, however, seems too vague, and equally applicable to some other com- 
plements. We suggest it as a substitute to those who may chance to prefer 
it to our more drawling, but more completely descriptive name — a name 
which conveys nearly all that has been said to the purpose about this form 
of modification, embracing merely facts, without leaning on any theory of 
the functions of these words — true or false. We regard this for the present 
as a compou7xd modification, consisting of a preposition and a noun, and we 
enter not here into the controversy about the nature, origin, or use of the 
preposition. 

f Even when apparently employed after nouns, this form of modification 
is supposed by some of the grammarians, perhaps not without reason, to 
modify not the noun directly, but a verb or adjective suppressed. Thus, in 
the phrases, The house above, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, &c., the 
chiirch, situated, or some similar word is supposed to be suppressed. It 
might also be suspected that of is suppressed after these prepositions, as well 
as situated before them. If so the phrase, The house beside the church = Tlte 
house by the side of the church. In this manner all the compounds begin- 
ning with be, as before, below, &c., and all the compounds beginning with a, 
might be dismissed from the list, and the number of these words about 
which any mystery remains, be greatly reduced. But it is not necessary to 
trouble the learner in the early stage of his grammatical studies with these 
speculations. 



(20) What name do we give to this form of modification ? (21) What distinction in re- 
ference to the kind of words to which this modification is applied ? (22) Eepeat the remark 
under No. (22). 

(23) Which preposition is most frequently emploj^edin foiming a modification of nouns ? 
(24) Repeat what is said of the modification made with of, and illustrate by an example. 



238 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§81. 

(25) Eemaek. — Sometimes two prepositions are employed together 
in forming this kind of modification, as, He came from beyond the 
river ; out of from within^ from without^ over against^ down from^ 
down to^ &c., are employed in this way. Perhaps in doicnfrom^ and 
down to, down should be considered as employed in the second func- 
tion, and only from and to as employed in the third.* 

(26) The preposition a in its separate state is chiefly employed he- 
fore the verbal nouns in ing. Thus used it is we believe a corruption 
of on, or in. We have had occasion to notice this form of expression 
in treating of the verbs. (See § 64.) 

(27) In analysis, when a preposition occurs in the first function 
no remark is necessary, as the compound into which it enters as a 
part is treated as a single word. (28) When the preposition in the 
second function (separate from the verb) occurs, we caU it simply the 
preposition modification, and say in analysis that the verb is modified 
by such a preposition, naming it. Some call aU prepositions thus used 
adverbs. It would be less objectionable, perhaps, to caU them prepo- 
sitions adverbially employed. (29) When the noun preceded by the 
preposition occurs, we say in analysis that the 2)finci2ml noun or xert^ 
as it may chance to be, is modified by the noun and preposition, re- 
peating the preposition and noun employed. 

In written exercises the learner may employ the following abbre- 
viations : Prep, for preposition, Prep. Modn. for preposition modi- 
fication, and jSF. and Prep. Modn. for noun and preposition modi- 
fication.] 

(30) The noun which enters into this form of modification is al- 
ways considered as in the accusative case. (31) When pronouns 
which possess a distinct accusative form enter into this modification, 



* All these examples of double prepositions, may be used with good ef- 
fect to prove that these words ex[)ress an independent sense, and not a mere 
relation between other words. See additional remarks on the preposi- 
tions. 



(25) Eepeat the remark and illustrate by examples. 

(26) Eepeat what is said in reference to the preposition a. 

(27) What is said in reference to the analysis when the preposition in its first function 
occurs ? (28) How do we treat the preposition in analysis when we find it in the second 
function ? (29) How do we conduct the analysis when it occurs in its third function— fol- 
lowed by a noun ?] 

(30) In what case is the noun which follows the preposition always considered to be ? 
{2>1) Eepeat what is said of pronouns following prepositions, and illustrate by examples. 



§ 81.] NOUN AND PREPOSITION MODIFICATION. 239 

it is always their accusative form which is employed. Examples, 
from me, to us, towards thee, beyond him, beside her, among 
them, &c.* 

In reference to this point the learner may, for convenience, adopt 
the following rule. — (32) Rule. In the noun and preposition 
modification, the noun or pronoun is in the accusative case. 

[(83) As regards the order of arrangement, other forms of modifi- 
cation occurring in the same proposition almost invariably take the 
precedence of the noun and preposition, when the modifications fol- 
low the principal word. (34) Sometimes the noun and preposition, 
especially when they express a circumstance of time, place, order, &c., 
are placed in the beginning of the proposition, when ihesubject stands 
between it and the verb which it modifies. (35) When they follow 
the verb in company with the simple modifications, such as the 



* In the ancient language (the Anglo-Saxon) other cases besides the accu- 
sative were used in connection with prepositions. Some prepositions were 
followed always by the accusative of their accompanying noun, others by a 
dative, and still others by a genitive. Sometimes the same preposition was 
followed by one or other of these cases, according to the natm-e of the asser- 
tion which they and the noun served to complete. The genitive, we believe, 
was never much employed after prepositions — and in the most ancient times 
only after a few of these words. At all events, the use of this case with pre- 
positions has long since entirely ceased in our language. And, as we have 
no distinct forms for either the dative or accusative in nouns, and, as there 
is now but one form of the pronouns for the dative and accusative, all dif- 
ference among the prepositions in reference to the case of the word which 
accompanies them, is completely concealed in the English of the present day. 
It often happens that the form of a pronoun which follows a preposition is, 
strictly speaking, a dative, not an accusative. But there is no practical use 
in compelling the learner to tell what case each preposition took after it 
seven centuries ago, or in requiring him to distinguish when the case which 
now follows them ought to be considered a dative, and when an accusative. 
The distinction between the two cases, even in the pronouns, has been long 
consigned to oblivion. And it is only as a historical fact, or when, as in re- 
ference to the dative modification, it throws light on the construction of the 
language, that it is useful to revive it. 



(32) Eepeat Eule. 

[(33) Eepeat what is said in reference to tlie order of arrangement. (34) Eepeat the sub- 
stance of what is said under No. 34. (35) What is said of the noun and preposition when 
they follow the verb? 



240 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§81- 

objective or dative modifications^ the objective and dative, being more 
closely connected in sense with the verb, are arranged nearer to it 
than the noun and preposition.^ 

(36) As regards the order of sense, th.Q p>rincipal word already modi- 
fied by the more intimate complements, is farther modified by the 
noun and preposition. (37) For example, Jolin's friend sent Mm a 
present on Tuesday. Here the verb sent modified by the accusative 
present.^ and dative Aim, is farther modified by the noun and preposi- 
tion on Tuesday.^ expressing a circumstance of time less closely connected 
with the action — ^less essential to the assertion than the objective and 
dative complements. The whole assertion, sent Mm a present., is mod- 
ified by the words on Tuesday. 

(38) Often a principal ivord — especially a verb — is affected by 
several noun and preposition modifications. (39) When one of these 
modifications is more closely connected in sense with the principal 
word than the rest, it ought to be arranged nearest to it. For exam- 
ple. He dined with Ms friends before Ms departure. (40) If we change 
the arrangement of the modifications in this proposition, we change 
the sense, or render the assertion ambiguous. (41) In many cases, mo- 
difications of this kind have a connection with iho. principal word in- 
dependent of each other, and sometimes it might be difiicult to decide 
which has the closest connection in sense. (42) In such cases there 
is room for the exercise of taste in arrangement. (43) In propositions 
where several of these modifications occur, there is often an order de- 



* Another reason besides the connection in sense, might be assigned for 
this order of arrangement. In our language, it is only by arrangement — 
by placing nouns immediately after the verbs which they modify — that we 
can clearly indicate our intention that they shall perform the functions of 
objective and dative complements. On the contrary, the noun and preposi- 
tion together, wherever placed, express a definite function, and therefore ad- 
mit more latitude of choice in regard of arrangement. In languages, which, 
like the Latin, have distinct forms for the accusative and dative cases, even 
a greater latitude of arrangement of objective and dative modifications is 
allowed, than with us in respect to the noun with the preposition. 



(36) What is said in reference to tlie order of sense ? (37) Give examples and illustra- 
tion. 

(38) Eepeat the remark about a principal word ? (39) When more than one of these 
nmm and preposition modifications are applied to the same word, how are they to be 
arranged? Give example. (40) What happens if we change the arrangement? (41) Re- 
peat what is said of independent modifications of this class. (42) What remark is made in 
reference to the arrangement in such cases ? (43) Continue the remark. (44) Eepeat 'n'hat 
is said about attention to the arrangement of this kind of modifications and of adverbs. 



§ 81.] NOUN AND PKEPOSITION MODIFICATION. 241 

cidedly preferable, as bringing out more clearly the exact meaning in- 
tended by the writer or speaker ; and good sense and good taste are 
to be employed in discovering this order in each particular case. (44) 
To the degree of attention paid to the arrangement of this kind of 
modification, and of adverbs, and accessory propositions, the chief 
difference between a perspicuous and a confused writer, between a 
good and a bad style, may generally be traced. 

(45) Remaek. — When two or more nouns in connection with the 
same preposition are employed to modify a principal word, the prepo- 
sition is generally expressed only with the first noun, and suppressed 
before the other nouns, as the mind of the reader or hearer can readily 
supply it. Thus we say, A man of intelligence and integrity^ equiva- 
lent to A man of intelligence and o'e integrity ; the second of being 
suppressed by ellipsis^ as it is called. That gentleman trax^elled through 
France^ Germany^ Switzerland^ Italy and Spain ; instead of through 
France^ through Germany^ theough Switzerland^ &c. Good taste 
must determine when such suppressions ought, or ought not, to be 
admitted.] 

Examples foe Analysis. — John trav)elled from London to Edin- 
l)urgh 'by railroad. I sent him letters by the packet on Wednesday. I 
gave him letters to my brother in the country.^ In the beginning God 
created the heavens. The man of benevolence receives the reward of his 
virtuous acts^ in this wo7'ld and the world to come. (To come, infinitive 
modification of noun world. See § Tl.) " The fear of the Lord is the 
beginning of Mowledge.^'' " Remember now thy Creator in the days of 
thy youth.'''' 



* The learner will please take notice that the noun and preposition in 
country are not a second modification of the verb sent, but modify the noun 
brother. The verb gave stands in the relation of principal to the words him, 
letters, to brother ; but brother — itself a modifying word — stands in the rela" 
tion of principal to iri the country. These distinctions cannot be too carefully 
observed. In tracing them, the student is tracing the connection of thought, 
through the connection of the signs of thought. He is learning to think 
accurately, to develop accurately the meaning of the writing subjected to 
his analysis. All properly conducted analysis exhibits the sense of a passage, 
so far as that is determined by the construction of language. That analysis 
or parsing which does not effect this is mere pedantic gibberish. 



(45) Eepeat the remark in reference to two or more nouns preceded by the same prepo- 
sition. Illustrate by examples.] 



16 



242 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 82. 

" On eagle-pinions lorne^ 
(The muse) Attempted through the swmner-blaze to rise ; 

Then swept o^ev autumn with the shadowy gale ; 
And now among the wintry clouds again, 
RolVd in the donbhng storm she tries to soar ; 
To swell her note with all the rushing winds ; 
To suit her sounding cadence to the floods^ 

Thorn. Win., 1. 20.' 
" Borne," 1st line, a participle modified by " on eagle-pinions ;" the 
same remark applies to roll'd. Several infinitives occur in these lines 
modified by nouns and prepositions. For " eagle-pinions" and " sum- 
mer-blaze," see § 70. O^er in the third line is a contraction for over. 
The learner is expected to analyze, as usual, all the words in Italics. 
Let the learner now form a given number of propositions, contain- 
ing one or more prepositions, followed by nouns or a pronoun. Let this 
exercise be repeated till he becomes well acquainted with all the pre- 
positions in the list ; and let him have credit according to the dex- 
terity shown in introducing as many as possible of the modifications 
already considered in each proposition which he forms. 

Eemaek. — Oases sometimes occur in which a preposition is mani- 
festly suppressed ; as. Go your way^ Speed your course^ He travels the 
same road. On is here suppressed. We say to ride a horse and to 
ride on a horse. The first is, we believe, the most usual construction. 
Perhaps ride in this case should be considered an active verb, since we 
can use a passive form, and say, The horse loas ridden to death. He 
resides in Bond street, No. 25. It is customary to suppress the prepo- 
sition at in such cases. 

§ 82. Additioxal Remarks on the Prepositions. — It is now, we believe, 
generally admitted by those best qualified to express an opinion on the sub- 
ject, that prepositions are not an originally distinct class of words. (The 
same may be said of the conjunctions and the adverbs.) We regard prepo- 
sitions as a collection (rather than a class) into which grammarians throw such 
words as take after them (to form a complement) a noun in an oblique case 
(that is, a case used exclusively for the purpose of expressing certain modifi- 
cations) — words, too, which have lost, through the lapse of time, the marks 
of their descent and of their original use, as primary parts of speech, but 
which most likely may have been, as many philologists contend, all, or 
nearly all, at one time verbs or nouns. The fact that they all, when a noun 
is imited with them in forming a complement, require that it should be in an 
obhque case, distinguishes them from adverbs and conjimctions. This is, in 
fact, their great distinguishing mark. This unfortunate collection of words 
has suffered very harsh and unjust usage from the hands of some of the 



§ 82.] PREPOSITIONS ADDITIONAL REMARKS. 243 

grammarians. It lias been commonly said that they express no meaning 
without the help of another word. Mr. Harris goes farther. " A preposi- 
tion," says he, "is a part of speech, devoid itself of signification; but so 
formed as to unite two words that are significant, and that refuse to coalesce 
or unite of themselves." This absurd assertion has been abundantly exposed 
by Home Tooke, in his usual acrimonious manner. The common defini- 
tion still given of these words is that they " serve to connect words with one 
another, and to show the relation between them." "We doubt the correctness 
of both these assertions. In performing the first two functions mentioned 
above, they do not connect words, and cannot show a relation between them. 
And yet in these functions, at least in the first, all grammarians have recog- 
nised them as still prepositions. In the second, some consider them adverbs. 
But if in the first use they admit that they are still prepositions, we do not 
see how they can consistently refuse to admit their claim to be such in the 
second use. Though in the third use they come between the noun, which 
with them forms a complement, and the word modified, and may perhaps be 
regarded as thus forming a sort of bond of connection between them, we doubt 
whether they are thus placed to serve this purpose, and whether they can with 
propriety be called connectives on this account. 

As to the second assei'tion in the common definition of prepositions, that 
they show the relation between the words which they connect, it cannot, as 
we have already said, apply to these words when employed in the first and 
second functions described above ; and even when employed in the third 
function, we think it would be difficult to prov# satisfactorily that they 
always or generally show the relation or a relation between the principal 
word and the noun which follows them. That the preposition and the 
noun together, which follow a verb, very often express the relation of its 
action to place, time, <fec., we admit. But this is very different from say- 
ing that the preposition expresses (and only expresses, in addition to its 
connective force) a relation between the action of the verb and what is ex- 
pressed by the following noun. Let us try examples : The man stood in the 
house — on the house — over the house — ivithin the house — out of the house — 
before the house — behind the house, Ac. He vaent along the street — ?*p the 
street — dow7i the street, &c. Now we doubt the propriety of saying that the 
several prepositions in these examples merely connect house and stood and 
went and street, and show the relation between the action of standing and 
the house, and the action of going and the street. A man ought to be 
able to give a reason for doubting, as well as for believing. "We give our 
reason, and, though the subject is abstruse, we hope to exhibit it in an in- 
telligible form. Let us select any one of these prepositions which happens 
to be used with a verb without a' noun following, or with a verb or other 
word in forming a compound — down, for example. ISTow if this word in the 
example above, expresses merely a relation between the action oi going and 
the street, we are at a loss to tell what it expresses in the phrase come down, 



244 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 82, 

or in the compound downfall. It has in all three cases plainly the same 
significance. Shall we say, that in all it expresses merely a relation ? And 
if so, a relation of what ? We know that the term relation is sometimes so 
vaguely used, that it may mean almost any thing, and thus serve con- 
veniently to cover a large amount of ignorance, under an appearance of pro- 
found knowledge. For our part, we are willing to admit the imperfection 
of om' knowledge of this troublesome class of words ; we are willing to re- 
ceive sound information in reference to them. But so far as we know, we 
are inclined for the present to hold that each of them is a word significant 
of something that cannot with propriety be called a mere relation. 

Our impression is, that the principal word (whether verb or noun) is really 
modified by the preposition first, and then the principal word and preposition 
together are modified by the noim after the preposition. To illustrate, by 
reference to a verb used as the principal word : the action of the verb receives 
a particular direction (we know not well what to call it, so as to embrace 
all cases — direction suits most cases) in reference to place, time, (fee, from the 
preposition, and thus modified, thus directed, takes a noun to complete it. 
For example, The man went up the hill ; or. The man came into the house. 
Here the verb went is modified by up, which gives a direction to the action 
of going, or expresses the direction of the action of going ; and the action 
thus modified, thus directed, is completed by the addition of the noun hill. 
So the action of coming receives a direction from into, and the verb thus 
modified is completed by the noun ho^lse. There are a few prepositions, 
such as in, of, with, for, which can scarcely be said to give direction, and we 
have not succeeded in finding a common notioyi and common term under 
which to unite them with the other prepositions. The words give a direc- 
tion, seem to us to express well the function of nearly all the other preposi- 
tions. "We have doubted whether we ought not to accommodate our analy- 
sis to this view of the function of prepositions. As there may be a doubt 
about the correctness of this doctrine, we follow, like the French grammari- 
ans, the plan of treating the preposition and noun together, as forming one 
kind of modification (though we think it not a siyigle modification). If any 
teacher chooses, he can readily follow the course accommodated to our sug- 
gestion above. 

It will be seen that, in the above remarks, we illustrate the function of 
prepositions, by reference exclusively to their use, in giving a direction in 
relation to place, in speaking of things material. But what we have said 
will equally apply to them when transferred to express what has relation to 
objects of thought, where there is, strictly speaking, no conception of place. 
The original use of nearly all the prepositions appears to have been to give 
local direction to the action of verbs. From this, owing to the analogies 
subsisting between place or space and time, some of them were naturally 
transferred to express simOar direction of the action in relation to time. 
Perhaps all the prepositions which we have enumerated, are still primarily 



§ 83.] MODIFICATION OF THE WHOLE ASSERTION. 245 

used with reference either to place or time, except for, which appears to 
have reference always to 'purpose or to causality. But many of them are 
farther employed by a sort of figurative use, in speaking of objects of mere 
intellect, when the mind conceives these objects as having some analogy to 
objects existing in space or connected with time. For example, we say, 
That man's house is above, below, beyond, under, over, (fee, your friend' s house ; 
or, Tliat man lives above, (fee, your friend. Here all the prepositions are em- 
ployed in their original literal sense. But when I say, That man lives above, 
below, beyond, (fee, Ids means, there is a figurative use of the prepositions. 
There is a transfer of these words to express something that the mind con- 
ceives to have a resemblance to the relations of objects in place. But, as 
we have intimated already, this makes no change in the relation which the 
preposition sustains to the words with which it is connected. 

If the suggestion given above in regard to the function of prepositions 
is followed, we may simplify the account which we have given of them in 
the preceding pages ; for, in this case, instead of three distinct functions, the 
preposition may be regarded in all its uses as performing one and the same 
function. The only difference is, that in one case it is attached to the modi- 
fied or principal word forming a compound, in another, it stands as a sepa- 
rate modifying sign ; and in this last case it and the principal word are 
sometimes further modified by a noun, and sometimes not. This account 
would stand instead of what has been said of the three distinct functions. 
These would thus come to be treated as three distinct forms of expression, 
into which a preposition enters while performing, all the time, one and the 
same function in reference to the principal word. 

Treating the preposition and noun, as we have done above, as a compound 
modification, we were compelled to treat the separate uses of the preposition 
as separate functions. We consider the analysis last suggested by far the 
most natural and most philosophical. But it involves a total change of the 
current definition of a preposition. We have already, however, shown, we 
hope to the satisfaction of every candid and intelligent reader, that the 
common definition of these words is, by no means, applicable to them as a 
class in all their various uses. We doubt whether it is strictly applicable to 
any one of them in any one use. 

[§ 83. There is a distinction of modifying expressions attached to 
the predicates of propositions, which we have not yet noticed, and 
which claims our attention in this place. (1) We have hitherto con- 
sidered all modifications as affecting either the subject or the predicate 
of propositions directly, or some word or phrase modifying the sub- 
ject or the predicate. (2) But there is another case possible, viz., a 
modification applied to the whole assertion made by the union of 

[§ 83. (1) Tell how we have hitherto considered all modifications. (2) What other case 



246 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 83. 

subject and predicate. (3) Such modification might, perhaps, with 
propriety be called a modification of the predicate, since it modifies 
the assertion; for, as the old grammarians have said, the force of the 
assertion rests in the predicate or verb. (4) Still we may distinguish, 
and sometimes it is important to distinguish, between such modifica- 
tions as aftect specially the part of the predicate contained in the verb, 
and such as afiect the whole preceding assertion — we mean preceding 
in order of sense. 

(5) The modifications aflfecting the predicate, already examined, 
excepting the class now under consideration, may perhaps be regarded 
as all of the first kind ; they alfect that part of the predicate con- 
tained in the verb. (6) Many of the noim and 2:)re2:>osition modifica- 
tions are also of the same kind, as, for instance, the noun and 'prejjo- 
^tion used to describe the manner of an action. (7) This noun is 
perhaps always accompanied with a descriptive adjective. (8) The 
Quan acted iisr a hecoming man]S'ee. Here, in a becoming manner is 
employed to modify acted. The predicate asserted is, acting in a de- 
coming manner. The noun and preposition with the accompanying 
complementary words, a 'becorning^ complete acting. 

(9) The noun and preposition employed to indicate the personal 
object, may also be considered as directly completing the part of the 
predicate contained in the verb. Example : He wrote to me. He car- 
ried a letter foe me. Here to me and/cr me., may be regarded as com- 
pleting the predicates writing and carrying., though it is not so clear 
as in the case above, that it may not as well be considered as modify- 
ing the whole assertion. 

(10) A large portion, however, of the noun and jjreposilion modi- 
fications, are of the second kind. They express some circumstance ne- 
cessary to complete the assertion^ but not directly descriptive or com- 
plementary of the verbal predicate. They do not express a modifica- 
tion inherent in the action indicated by the verb, or conceived by the 
mind as specially connected with it. (11) Example: I]sr the begust- 

is possible ? (3) How might such modifications as now described be considered ? (4) Re- 
peat what is said about the importance of distinguishing modifications which are applied to 
the whole proposition. 

(.5) Repeat the remark in reference to the modifications already considered. (6) What 
is said of many of the noun and preposition modifications ? (7) How is the noun in the noun 
and preijosition expressing manner generally accompanied? (S) Give example and illus- 
trate. 

(9) How may the noun and preposition expressing the personal object be considered? 
Give illustration by example. 

(10) Repeat the substance of what is said in reference to a large portion of the noun and 
preposition modifications. (11) Illustrate by examples. 



§ 84.] ACCUSATIVE OF TIME, VALUE, ETC. 24*7 

NiNG God created the Tieaven^ &c. Here, In the 'beginning^ expresses 
no inherent modification of the action of creating^ but rather com- 
pletes the whole assertion, God created the heamn and the earth. The 
'hoy wrote on Saturday to his father. Here on Saturday does not 
modify writing^ as the words in a 'beautiful manner modify or describe 
writing^ when we say, The 'boy writes in a beautiful manner. 

(12) To distinguish this ^'^qqiqs of noun and preposition modl^co.- 
tions, we may call them circumstantial modifications. The modifica- 
tions of time, distance, &c., considered in the next section, as well as 
many of the adverbs, belong to this class. See more on this subject 
in what we shall have to say on the adverbs (§ 92). 

It may not be necessary, perhaps, on account of this distinc- 
tion, to recognise a class of modifications affecting the whole assertion 
contained in a proposition, and not the separate parts of the propo- 
sition, since some might contend that in all the examples given above 
it is the predicate which is affected. It will be sufficient, when such 
a case occurs, to notice that the modification is of the circumstantial 
class. 

(13) It will be observed that as these circumstantial modifications 
affect the general assertion, it is not so necessary to indicate their con- 
nection with the verb, by the position assigned to them in the propo- 
sition. Accordingly, nouns and prepositions^ as weU as adverbs em- 
ployed to express circumstances, are often arranged far from the verb, 
very frequently when they express time or order in the 'beginning of 
the proposition. (14) Such circumstantial modifications are often 
separated by interpunction from the rest of the proposition.] 

§ 84. When we entered on the consideration of the preposi- 
tions, we reserved a class of modifications formed by nouns, which 
require some reference to the noun and preposition modification in 
explaining them. We now return to these, and so finish all that 
we have to say about nouns employed for the purpose of modify- 
ing verbs and other nouns. 

The Accusative of Time, Value, Weight, Measure. — (1) 
Nouns which express time, especially the duration of time, value, 
iveight, measure, including all the dimensions, are employed with- 

(12) How do we distinguisli this spedies of modifications ? Mention some which belong 
to this species. 

(13) Eepeat what is said in reference to the arrangement of circumstantial modifications. 

(14) What is said of separating circumstantial modifications by interpuQction ?] 

§ 84. (1) Mention the classes of nouns employed without a preposition to express what 



248 STRUCTLTIE OF LAXGUAaE. [§ 84. 

out the lielp of a ^preposition to express a modification equivalent 
to the noun and preposition modification. (2) Nouns expressing a 
complement of this kind are commonly said to be in the accusative 
or objective case, and, in every such complement, most gTammari- 
ans suppose that the suppression of a preposition occurs (a). (3) 
When a modification of this kind is formed, the learner may say 
that the verb is modified or completed by an accusative of time, 
of value, &c., as the case may be (h). 

(4) We may add to these the word home. WTien this noun is 
used to modify a verb signifpng motion to — no preposition is em- 
ployed with it. In other words, the preposition to is not employed 
with the noun home. It is not correct to say, Go to home, He came 
to home, but Go home. He came home. In all other cases, except 
when motion to is expressed, we employ a preposition with this 
word, as we would with other names of place ; as. He goes from 
home, He comes from home. He is at home. We do not say. He is 
IN home. 

"We give examples of this kind of modifications, accompanying 
them with illustrative remarks. The examples may be used by the 
learner as an exercise in analysis. 

(5) Examples. — 1st. Of the Accusative of Time. Time how Long. 
— Moses dwelt forty years in the land of Midian. That man has resided 
thu'ty years in the United States. He has lived seven years in Lon- 
don. David reigned seven years in Hebron. Time when. — John ar- 
rived this morning. That act teas passed last year. He will come to 
toion next weelc. 

(6) When we name a particular day of the week, or of the month, 
we usually employ with it the preposition on ; He arrived on Thurs- 
day. He went away on the first day of May. (7) When we designate 
the particular year, we employ the preposition in, thus. In the year 
1851. Where 1851 may be considered as performing the function of 
a noun — the proper name of the year, and year a noun in a2J2^osition 
with it (c). 



is equivalent to a noun and preposition modification. In what case is a noun said to be 
■when thus employed, and what suppression is supposed to occur ? (3) What may we call 
Buch modifications ? 

(4) Eepeat what is said of the word Tiome, with the examples and illustrations. 

(5) Eepeat a few of the examples of the accusative of time. 

(6) What construction do we use when we name a particular day of the week, or of the 
month ? Give example. (7) What when we designate the particular year ? 



§ 84.] ACCUSATIVE OF TIME, VALUE, ETC. 249 

(8) 2d. AoousATivE OF Value. — The only verh after which this is 
used, we beheve, is cost. This tooTc cost six shillings^ John^s Imife cost 
seven shillings, &c. (9) Besides the accusative of the price, another ac- 
cusative of the quantity — weight or measure — is often used to modify 
the verb cost. For example, Flour costs five dollars a darrel. That 
tea costs six shillings a pound. Wheat costs seven shillings a hushel. 
That cloth costs twenty-five shillings a yard (d). 

(10] 3d. Accusative of Weight. — This is used after the verb 
weigh. The dale weighs one hundred pounds. You weigh one hundred 
and G\ghtj pounds (e). 

(11) 4th. Accusative of Measuee. — This is used after the verb 
measure employed intransitively and after extends. This field measures 
ten acres. The piece of cloth measures twenty yards. (12) We do not re- 
commend these forms of expression as pure English, though, we believe, 
they are in common colloquial use. In writing we would certainly 
adopt another form of expression, and avoid the neuter use of the 
verb measure. (13) This road extends a mile., &c. 

(14) The accusative of the measure of distance., or what may be 
more briefly called, the accusative of distance, is used after the numer- 
ous verbs which express the different ways of movement from place 
to place. Examples: (15) I walked five miles this morning. He rides 
fifty miles a day. The ship sailed twelve hnots an hour. They tra'oelled 
a great distance. We drove ten miles. In most of these examples, there 
is an accusative of time besides the accusative of distance. 

ExEECiSE L, IL, III., &c. — A given number of propositions with 
accusatives of time, &;c., as complements. 

IN'oTE {a). It may well be doubted whether in regard to many of these ac- 
cusatives of time, value, &c., it is correct to say that a preposition is sup- 
pressed. In forms of speech where a preposition is sometimes employed, 
and sometimes not, in expressing the same modification, whenever the pre- 
position is omitted, we may say that a preposition is suppressed. But in cases 
where the insertion of any known preposition would appear forced and un- 
natural, it is surely unphilosophicaT, if not absurd, to say that a preposition 
is suppressed. Whoever asserts that a preposition in any given instance is 



(S) After what verb is the accusative of value or price used ? Give examples. (9) Tell 
what second accusative is used after cost, and give examples. 

(10) After what verb is an accusative of weight employed ? Examples. 

(11) What verbs does the accusa^ve of measure follow ? Give examples of the verb 
measure with accusative of measure. (12) What is said of the form of expression, the 
field measiores ten acres ? (13) Give example with the verb extends. 

(14) What is remarked in reference to the accusative of distance ? (15) Give examples 
of the accusative of distance used with various verbs, 

10 



250 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 84. 

suppressed, ought to be able to tell without hesitation what particular pre- 
position, and to show that, by inserting it before a noun, the same meaning 
can be expressed as well, if not better, and more clearly and fully. This 
task we would not like to undertake in reference to many of the accusatives 
of duration, value, &c., which are used to complete verbs and adjectives. 
All this difficulty arises from commencing at the wrong end of a subject. 
Fu'st, it is settled or taken for granted, that the noun of time, value, (fee, is 
in the accusative case, on what grounds, we know not, except it is because 
such cii'cumstances are expressed generally by an accusative in Latin ; and 
next' the search is for some word to govern this accusative ; and what so con- 
venient as a preposition? And yet, were the question put, why should a 
preposition take the noun which follows it in the accusative, it would be full 
as difficult to answer, as to account for a noun without a preposition being 
employed to indicate time, value, <fec. Instead of this, the true method of 
inquiry appears to us to be, fii-st, to ascertain the function which these nouns 
of time, value, &c., perform, next, to mark this function by a distinctive 
name, without giving ourselves much trouble about settling exactly — what 
is, in the present usage of our language, both unimportant and obscure — the 
case of the word, and then we may safely let the government go to the re- 
ceptacle (it would need to be a capacious one) of grammatical anilities. 

The truth is, that all this class of modifications now expressed in English 
without the help of a preposition, were expressed in Anglo-Saxon by case 
forms. The noun of measure, valv£, age, was put in the genitive ; the noun 
expressing the time when, in the genitive or dative ; and the time how long 
(duration) was indicated by the use of the accusative. 

From this it will be seen that it is not, perhaps, altogether correct to call 
these 7nodifications indiscriminately accusatives of time, value, measure, &c. 
But this, in reference to the name and the discrimination of cases, is of small 
importance in the present state of our language. Since we do not now em- 
ploy the genitive — ^the only case form which remains to us — for any of 
these purposes of expressing time, (fee, (the old word whiles, now shortened 
into vjhile, is an example of the genitive used to express the time when,) it 
would be useless to attempt to discriminate between datives and accusatives 
of time, (fee, after distinct forms, both of dative and accusative, have, long 
since, become obsolete. "What is important, is to distinguish the peculiar 
function of these nouns ; or if we speak of case, to distinguish the case used 
in these modifications from the nominative case used as subject noun, and for 
other purposes already enumerated. 

The method of indicating such functions of nouns as we are now con- 
sidering, as well as what we have called genitive, dative, and objective modi- 
fications, by inflexion, seems to have existed in most languages prior to the 
use of prepositions for this purpose. It is the introduction of prejjositions to 
help in forming this kind of modifications, as we think, that is a compara- 
tiyely modern innovation, and not the suppression of prepositions, as some 



§ 84.] ACCUSATIVE OF TIME, VALUE, ETC. NOTES. 251 

grammarians would leave us to conclude. The expression of complements 
of time, value, &g., without the intervention of a pi'eposition, is more prop- 
erly considered bj some a remnant of the old language, which, in this in- 
stance, has undergone no change since the earliest period known, save what 
has arisen from the suppression of case forms. "We believe that there never 
was a time, as far back as the date of the most ancient remains of Anglo- 
Saxon, when a preposition was used in the greater part of the modifications, 
expressive of duration, measure, distance, &c. 

We shall soon have occasion to observe, that some adjectives are modi- 
fied in the same manner by accusatives of ti^ne, value, measure, &c. 

Note (b). — We employ the name accusative of time, &g., in preference to 
the objective of tirne, &c., lest the learner by the use of ths latter name, 
should be led inadvertently to confound this with the objective modification 
of verbs, from which it must be carefully distinguished. These words of 
time, pi-ice, &c., do not express a passive object, such as can become the sub- 
ject of the verb employed in the passive form. The verbs which admit this 
form of modification, are in fact generally neuter verbs, having no passive form. 

Note (c). — We have another way of expressing duration of time, or the 
time how long, by employing the word during. Thus we say. He will remain 
with us DURING the day, the week, the month, the year, the holidays, &c. But 
this is a totally different construction. During, which some call a preposi- 
tion, is plainly an imperfect participle, and the construction is what is called 
a noun with a participle — an abbreviated form of a proposition. In this con- 
struction the noun may be considered as in the nominative case, if we please, 
or in the dative, but most certainly it is not in the accusative governed by 
during, as many grammarians assert. (See § 143: 13.) 

Note {d). — Here, some say, the preposition for is suppressed, and to be 
understood before the word of quantity. But it cannot be supplied without 
manifest awkwardness. And hence our book-keepers resort to the Latin 
preposition per — a practice which betrays more pedantry than proper regard 
for the purity of our language. The preposition for was never, we pre- 
sume, currently employed in our language before words of quantity coming 
after either the verb cost, or the adjective worth. If any preposition is sup- 
pressed in such constructions, we suspect that it must be bt, not for. 

Query. — Is it not possible that the a employed in this case, instead of 
being the (so called) article, or the numeral, as some think, is the preposition 
noticed in the preceding section? To this it might be objected that we can 
use the in such constructions without much variation of the sense. That 
cloth costs thirty shillings the yard. This is not so natural ; when we use 
the, we believe, we most commonly insert by. It might also be objected, 
that, if a thus used before a noun of quantity is the preposition, there is 
an unnatural suppression of the article. This ellipsis would be necessary 
and not unnatural, as the preposition a could not Avell be followed either by 
the article a or by the. 



252 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 84. 

We are more inclined to think that, if there is really an ellipsis in this 
construction, it is the ellipsis or suppression of a j^roposition, rather than of 
a preposition, or of an article. To illustrate by an example, suppose I am 
asked the price of a piece of cloth, I reply, This doth cost thirty shillings. 
This is a complete proposition, but it does not contain, as I find when I come 
to the end of it, a sufficiently definite answer to the question. I therefore 
add, as it were by after-thought, the words a yard, equivalent to the addi- 
tional proposition, A yard of it costs thirty shillings, or to the two addi- 
tional propositions, A yard of it, I mean, costs thirty shillings. This kind of 
after-thought, we suspect, affords the true clue to the explanation of the ori- 
gin of many otherwise puzzling constructions. See another case to which it 
applies in the next note, "We might refer the learned reader to Greek con- 
structions which, we think, most likely originated first from after-thought, 
and at last became established idioms in the progress of the language. Some- 
times the insensible extension of such idioms, after they have been once re- 
ceived, has added to the difiiculties which the grammarian has to encounter 
in explaining them. "We refer to such examples as, 

'AAA' ovK 'ArpelSr} ' Ay ajxe/xvovi rjvSave ^v/jlcS. 

But it did not please Agamemnon, son of Atreus — soul ; equivalent to, 
It did not please Agamemnon — I mean it did not please his sold. Such datives 
as Sfvfx^ here, we think first originated from after-thought. And in the same 
manner, perhaps, we may account for the origin of the accusative employed 
in Greek to specify the part, circumstance, &e., often imitated by the Latin 
poets. 

When such expressions are often repeated, they become established 
idioms ; their origin is forgotten ; they are recognised as a regular mode of 
expressing a certain sort of modification ; and are, sometimes (to increase 
the grammarian's perplexity), extended insensibly to serve purposes in lan- 
guage very different from those for which they were primarily employed. 

The grammarians have said very little on the subject of these accusatives 
of time, (fee, as we have ventured to call them, because they have unhesitat- 
ingly concluded that a preposition is in all such cases suppressed — and that 
this ellipsis accounts completely for the construction. A more extensive 
knowledge of our very earliest English authors, might throw light on some 
of the idiomatic constructions now noticed, and might either confirm or set 
aside the explanations which we have suggested. We are not perfectly sat- 
isfied on some points. We wish more light. It is to be desired that those 
who are engaged in exploring the dark regions of our literature, would bear 
in mind those points in the construction of our language, which still need 
elucidation. And these are not a few. To do any service in this cause, 
those who engage in the inquiry must do so free from the trammels of all 
grammatical theories. 

Note {e). — We have another way of expressing weight, in which the 
word weight itself occurs as an accusative of weight, except we consider it as 



§ 84.] ACCUSATIVE OF TIME, VALUE, ETC. 253 

employed originally by after-thought, to explain a proposition already com- 
pleted. (See Note d.) For example, This hale is one hundred pounds weight. 
Here we might supply the words as to, or in or by. This would make a 
very clumsy as well as finical expression — such as, we suspect, our early 
straightforward forefathers never employed. We suppose that the word 
weight was added by after-thought, as we have said, to explain that pounds 
by weight, not pounds sterling, were meant. The difference between these 
two kinds of pounds is of ancient date in our financial history. 



CHAPTER VI. 

O F AD JECTIVES. 

§ 85. (1) We pass now from that class of modifications which 
consists wholly or partly of nouns to those which are effected by 
words, invented and employed exclusively for the purpose of modi- 
fication — of completing the noun and the verb. Here the adjec- 
tives claim our first attention. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

(2) The adjectives rank next to the nouns and verbs in impor- 
tance. (3) They have received the name of adjective, because they 
are intended for the purpose of being adjected, or added to 2iprin- 
cijml word to determine, limit, describe, or qualify it ; or, to use the 
more general expression, which we employ as including all these 
purposes, to modify it. (4) The adjective may be considered the 
chief modifier. 

(5) We divide the adjectives into two classes, which we shall 
call descriiotive adjectives (des. a.), and determinative adjectives [det. 
a.). (6) The descriptive adjectives are far the most numerous class, 
and, besides, the easiest to explain. (7) We shall consider them 
first, as a knowledge of their use will prepare the way for the better 
understanding of the determinatives.* 



* It will be observed that we have not treated the participles as a dis- 
tinct class of adjectives. The reason is that, except when employed in form- 
ing compoimd tenses, as already described, and in performing the part of 

§ 85. (1) Eepeat the introdnctory remark. 

(2) How do the adjectives rank in importance ? 

(3) Tell the reason assigned for giving this class of words the name ADJECTrvE. (4) How 
may the adjective be considered ? 

(5) Into what classes are the adjectives divided ? (6) What is said of the descriptive 
adjectives ? (7) "What reason is assigned for considering them fli'st ? 



§ 85.] OF ADJECTIVES. 255 

The Descriptive Adjectives. — (8) The name descriptive is 
given to this class of words because they describe an object (ex- 
pressed by the noun to which they are attached as attributives, or 
of which they are predicated), by some quahty or property either 
attributed to it or asserted of it. (8 a) These words, by some called 
adjective nouns, are, like the ahsti^act nouns, the names of qualities, 
properties, attributes of objects, but they are not, like the abstract 
nouns, employed as the subjects of propositions. (9) To illustrate 
this by an example, goodness is an abstract noun, the name of a 
moral quality, and can be employed as the subject of a proposition, 
Good^iess is one of the divine attributes. Or it can be employed in 
modifying other nouns with the help of a preposition, as, A man of 
goodness. But good, also the name of the same moral quality, can 



predicates in contracted accessory propositions to be described hereafter, 
they differ nothing in their functions from descriptive adjeetiyes. The dif- 
ference between them and common descriptive adjectives is in meaning. 
The adjectives express qualities inherent in objects, the participles express 
actions attributively of which the noun they modify represents either 
the agent or the recipient or passive object. The participles of that very 
peculiar (peculiar as to significance) verb to he, may perhaps be regarded 
as forming an exception. 

Participles in many cases become adjectives, when they are used not to 
express an action, but an inherent attribute. An action indefinitely con- 
tinued, merges into an inherent attribute. Thus the participle loving, in 
such phrases as, A loving friend, comes to express an inherent attribute, 
because the action is capable of indefinite continuance, or, in other words, be- 
comes habitual. Some actions again prodiice permanent effects, and hence their 
perfect participles expressing the completion of these effects, come to be iised 
as common adjectives to express acquired inherent qualities. Thus in the 
phrase, An educated man, a learned tnan, the words educated and learned 
are nsed as common descriptive adjectives, and express permanent though 
acquired qualities. 

What we have described above, we believe to be the true distinction be- 
tween a participle and a participle adjectively used. The assertion of the 
old grammarians, that when a participle ceases to indicate time, it becomes 
an adjective, appears to us incorrect. At all events it cannot apply to Eng- 
lish participles, which do not indicate time, but merely the state of the ac- 
tion as completed or incomplete — perfect or imperfect. 

(8) Why is the name descriptive given to this class of words? 

(8 a) In what are the descriptive adjectives like, and in what unlike, abstract nonns ? (9) 



256 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 85. 

only be used adjectively^ in connection with a principal word to 
which it is adjected^ which it describes, or modifies.* 

(10) It cannot, like the noun goodness, be used as the subject 
of a proposition. We can assert nothing of it. (11) We find in- 
deed such propositions as, The good alone are happy, but it is obvi- 
ous that the good is in this proposition an abbreviated expression for 
good men, good persons, or good people. Either men, or persons, or 
some noun of similar meaning, is manifestly implied. (12) To as- 
sert of what we understand by the term good, considered alone, 
that it is happy would be absurd. (13) When considered (/or- 
mally, technically, or materialiter) as a mere word without refer- 
ence to its meaning, we can employ it as the subject of such propo- 
sitions as the following : Good is a word of one syllable or of four 
letters ; Good is an adjective ; Good expresses a moral quality, &c. 
(14) But these assertions are made in reference to the word or sign, 
not in reference to what good denotes. (15) If we wish to make 
any assertion about the quality expressed by good, we must employ 
the abstract noun goodness, as the subject of the proposition. 

(16) Lest we should be misunderstood, we must caU the attention 



* The adjective is a more brief, compact, complete way of expressing 
the same tiling that is expressed by the noun and preposition. A good man 
is equivalent to, A man of goodness, and generally speaking, a much more 
convenient phrase. When we have an adjective to express a quality, it 
forms the most perfect kind of complement. The adjectives may be regard- 
ed as a most artificial contrivance — one of the last results of the refinement 
of language. The want of a word of this sort to express a quality, is often 
felt as a serious disadvantage by those who value a compact, terse, and forci- 
ble style of writing. For example, we have no adjective to express the at- 
tribute sensibility ; for sensible does not express this attribute, but one en- 
tirely distinct from it. If we wish to speak of a man possessed of this quality, 
we have to say, A man of sensibility. Such lumbering complements, especi- 
ally when often repeated, enfeeble style. 



Illustrate this by an example. (10) What farther is said of the adjective good ? (11) "What 
is said in reference to the good in such an assertion as The good alone are happy ? (12) 
Can we assert any thing of good alone in its proper sense ? (13) Kepeat the remark in re- 
ference to good and similar adjectives considered {materialiter) as mere words. Repeat 
examples. (14) What is said of the assertions in the examples ? (15) What word must we 
use, when we wish to assert any thing about the quality expressed by good ? 

(16) What two purposes does the same word sometimes serve ? (17) Illustrate by ex- 



§ 8'5.] OF ADJECTIVES. 25*7 

of the learner to the fact, that the same word sometimes serves both 
as a noun and as an adjective. (17) Thus cold is used as a noun, 
when we say. The cold is excessive; but as an adjective, when we 
say, Cold toeather often injures tender plants. (18) In such cases, it 
is by the function which the word performs, that we distinguish the 
noun from the adjective. (19) The discrimination is easily made. 
(20) It may appear more difficult to draw an exact line of distinction 
between words which are sometimes substantives and sometimes ad- 
jectives, and those nouns which are adjectively used. (21) The noun 
adjectively used, is generally employed only in certain set forms of 
expression, and serves most frequently to express, in an abbreviated 
manner, some modification which nouns and not adjectives are em- 
ployed to effect. (See § 70.) (22) If it should be doubtful, in some 
cases, whether we should say of a certain modification, that it con- 
sists of a noun adjectively employed., or that the word which forms 
this modification is a word of double sense or double function.^ some- 
times noun, sometimes adjective, it is a matter of small importance, 
since the two kinds of modification, in many instances, and especially in 
such doubtful instances, are almost, if not altogether, equivalent, (23) 
Those words which are both nouns and adjectives, generally occur 
so frequently in the adjective sense, as to preclude all doubt as to the 
course to be pursued in regard to them. They are not very numerous 
in our language. (24) The adjectives expressive of color, are very 
often used as nouns, though we have abstract nouns formed from 
them. (25) Thus we say, Oreen is pleasing to the sight ; Red is dis- 
agreeable, &g.; though we have the nouns greenness, redness, &c. 
"We suppose we should say, in such cases, that the Adjective is sub- 
stantively employed, rather than that the same word is both noun and 
adjective. 

(26) The learner will most readily acquire a knowledge of the de- 
scriptive adjectives, by directing his attention to the diiferent classes 
of qualities or properties which fall within human knowledge. The 
classification here is precisely the same as in respect to the abstract 
nouns. (See § 26.) 



ample. (18) How do we distinguish the noun from the adjective in such cases ? (19) Is the 
discrimination easily made? (20) What distinction may be more dilficult to make ? (21) 
Eepeat the substance of what is said in reference to the noun adjectively employed. (22) 
What remark is made in reference to doubtful cases ? (23) What is said in reference to 
words which are used both as nouns, and as adjectives? (24) Repeat the remark about ad- 
jectives which express color. (25) Illustrate by examples. 

(26) How may the learner most readily acquire a knowledge of the descriptive adjec- 
tives? 

17 



258 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 85. 

(27) The tirst great division of qualities, attributes, or properties, 
is into those which we ascertain by our external senses, and those 
which we ascertain by the help of an intellectual process. The first 
we may call material qualities, the second mental or immaterial 
qualities. (28) Of the first, a subdivision may be formed in reference 
to the particular external sense by which we discover them. (29) 
Thus (A) we have adjectives expressive of qualities which we dis- 
cover by sight ; in other words, expressive of the different colors — 
white^ red^ green^ Mue^ &c. (B) Adjectives expressive of qualities 
ascertained by the sense of hearing, or expressive of the diiferent 
properties of sound — loud^ shrilly Tioarse^ &c. (0) Adjectives expres- 
sive of qualities ascertained by the sense of touch ; as, rougJi^ mnooth^ 
dry^ moist^ Jiard^ soft, &c. (D) Adjectives expressive of qualities 
ascertained by the sense of smell ; as, fragrant, fetid, &c. (E) Ad- 
jectives expressive of qualities ascertained by the sense of taste ; as, 
sweet, sour, Mtter, &c. Some properties, as those of extension — long, 
iroad, thick, high, &c. — are perhaps ascertained by the aid of two 
senses. 

(30) The second great division of adjectives includes those which 
express aU the qualities of the human mind, and what we know of the 
attributes of higher spiritual natures — the feelings, instincts, &c., of 
the lower animals. (31) As a sample of such adjectives, we may 
give the following : Virtuous, vicious, mild, stern, gentle, froward, 
'proud, hunible, compassionate, cruel, good, had, wild, tame, loise, 
foolish, &c., &c. 

[(32) It may be here observed, that a large proportion of our cib- 
stract nouns are derived from adjectives, and manifestly of later forma- 
tion, since the adjective is often plainly the original or primary word. 
(33) Bj the addition of the termination ness to a large portion of the 
adjectives above enumerated, we form the corresponding abstract 
noun. For example — from white is formed whiteness; from loud, 
loudness ; from smooth, smoothness ; from sweet, sweetness ; &c. (34) 
From some, nouns are formed by other suffixes ; as, fi-om wise, wis- 
dom ; from, long, length; from fragrant, fragrance ; &c. (35) In all 



(27) What division is proposed of these adjectives founded on the nature of the qualities 
■which they express ? (28) What subdivision is proposed of the first class — the class which 
expresses material qualities? (29) Enumerate these subdivisions giving examples of each. 

(30) What does the second great class of adjectives include? (31) Give a sample of this 
class of adjectives. 

[(32) What is said in reference to the formation of many of the abstract nouns ? (33) 
What termination is often added to adjectives for this purpose ? Give examples. (84) Give 
examples of abstract nouns formed from adjectives by the addition of other suflSxes. (35) 



§ 86.] USES OF DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 259 

these, it is evident that the adjective is the primary word, and the 
abstract noun the derivative. (36) The adjectives appear, therefore, 
at least in all the instances enumerated, and in all like cases, to be 
an older part of the language than the corresponding abstract nouns. 
(37) On the other hand, some adjectives are formed from abstract 
nouns; as, from virtue comes virtuous, &c, ; and many adjectives are 
formed from concrete nouns; as, from gold, golden; wood, wooden; 
fool, foolish, and from this again the sibstr act foolisJiness.} 

ExEECisES I., II., III., &c. — Find a given number of adjectives ex- 
pressive of qualities or properties ascertainable by the several senses, 
arranged under each sense in order ; the same also in regard to the 
adjectives expressive of spiritual, mental and animal qualities ; placing 
after each adjective an appropriate noun. 

We have said, perhaps, enough for the present of the nature of 
descriptive adjectives; we proceed next to treat of the grammatical 
functions which they perform in language, and after this we shall con- 
sider their modifications. 

§ 86. (1) Descriptive adjectives are used for two purposes, 1st, 
to complete nouns, 2d, to complete verbs. 

1st. The Descriptive Adjective used to complete Nouns. 
— The learner has already acquired some knowledge of this use of 
the descriptive adjective from the preceding remarks, and from the 
examples introduced, and the exercises which have been prescribed. 

(2) We may, if we please, call this the attributive use of the adjec- 
tive, since it expresses some attribute or property represented as 
inherent in the object denoted by the noun to which it is attached. 

(3) The adjective and noun together express not two objects, but a 
single object, qualified in the way expressed by the adjective. (4) 
The adjective may be regarded as constituting an essential part of 
the whole name of the object which we contemplate. (5) In the 
phrase, A hay horse, the word hay is as essential a part of the name 
of what I intend to indicate as the word horse. (6) Hence, descrip- 



What is evident in regard to the adjectives in all these examples ? (36) Which in these in- 
stances is .he oldest part of the language — the adjectives or the abstract nouns. (87) Ai-e 
adjectives ever formed from abstract nouns ? Examples. Are any formed from concrete 
nouns? Examples.] 

§ SG. (1) Mention the two great purposes for which descriptive adjectives are used. (2) 
What may we call the first use ? and state the reason. (3) What do the adjective and noun 
together express ? (4) How may the adjective be regarded ? (5) Illustrate by an example. 
(6) Eepeat what is said about descriptive adjectives being accounted concrete words. 



260 STEUCTURE OF LANaUAGE. [§ 86. 

tive adjectives are accounted concrete words, as growing with or ad- 
hering to a real substance, in opposition to tlie abstract nouns which 
denote quahties or properties ohstro,cted or considered separately 
from the substances and other properties with which they co-exist. 

(7) We may call this form of modification. The Descriptite 
Adjective Modificatiox of ISTouns. 

(8) The noun modified or completed by a descriptive adjective may 
be either the subject noun of a proposition or a noun used for the pur- 
pose of modification. (9) If it be the subject noun, the assertion is 
made, not of what the noun alone denotes, but of what the noun and 
adjective together denote. (10) If it be a noun employed for modiji- 
cation, the meaning of th.Q principal word is not modified by what the 
noun alone denotes, but by what the noun and adjective together de- 
note. (11) For example, A good conscience is an inestimable treasure. 
It is not of conscience that the assertion in this proposition is made, 
but of a good conscience. And it is not by treasure, but by inestimable 
treasure that the verb is is completed. 

(12) The usual place of the descriptive adjective in English is 
immediately before the noun which it completes. (13) When the 
adjective itself is attended by a noun and preposition modification, 
or by an infinitive modification, it is generally placed after the noun 
to avoid confusion. Thus, we say, A man desirous of glory. We 
could not, without great awkwardness and confusion, say, A desi- 
rous of glory man. We say, A man addicted to falsehood ; and 
not An addicted to falsehood man. 

(14) Often more than one adjective is employed to complete the 
same noun. (1-5) Sometimes two or more adjectives are applied inde- 
pendently of each other to the same word, each giving it a separate 
modification. Adjectives thus applied are usually connected \)j con- 
junctions. Tor example, A wise and good ruler ought to be re&pected. 
Here icise and good, independently of each other, modify the noun 

(7) What may we call the form, of modification made by applying a descriptive adjective 
to a noun ? 

(S) What remark is made in reference to the notm thus modified ? (9) To what does the 
assertion apply when the subject noun is modified by an adjective ? (10) "What is said of a 
modifying noun accompanied by an adjective ? (11) Illustrate by an example. 

(12) What place does the descriptive adjective usually occupy in the arrangement of a 
proposition ? (13) What exception to the usual arrangement ? G-ive examples and illus- 
tration. 

(14) Can several adjectives be used to complete the same noun ? (15) How are two or 



§ 86.] DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE MODIFICATION. 261 

rul&r. This species of compound modification we shall notice here- 
after, when we have first considered the functions performed by the 
class of words called conjunctions. (16) But there is another case of 
the application of two adjectives in modifying the same noun, which 
may be considered here ; viz., when one of the adjectives modifies the 
noun as already completed by the other adjective. (17) For example, 
A pretty wooden loiol ; here wooden is the more intimate modification of 
the word howl^ and the adjective j9re^% does not modify howl separately, 
but the words wooden 'bowl. (18) Pretty may be called the more remote 
modification. "We may add that the determinative « is a still more re- 
mote modification applied to the noun as modified by the two descriptive 
adjectives. (19) The more intimate complement is placed nearest in the 
order of arrangement to the principal word, the most remote farthest 
fi-om it ; or, in other words, each modifying word precedes that part of 
the phrase which it modifies. This may be exhibited to the eye in writing, 
thus : a [pretty (wooden bowl)] ; or, in analysis, thus : [(Bowl n-mod. 
ly wooden des. a.) mod. ly pretty des. a] mod. ly a det. a. ; to be read 
thus, the noun bowl is modified by the descriptive adjective wooden.^ 
wooden boiol by the descriptive adjective pretty, smd pretty wooden howl 
by the determinative adjective a.* (20) Two descriptive adjectives 



■^ When we express the analysis of a passage in writing, it will be neces- 
sary, in order to secure perspicuity, to follow invariably the same order of 
arrangement. The arrangement which we recommend is, to place whatever 
applies to a single principal word immediately after it, and when a modifi- 
cation applies to any co7nhination of words, let these words be included within 
parenthetic marks, as above, or under a vincxdum, and let what applies to such 
combination be written immediately after the close of the parenthesis or 
termination of the vinculum. Whatever thus immediately follows paren- 
thetic marks, is to be considered as applied to the expression which they 
include. Thus, in the above example, the words, modified by pretty des. a., 
apply to the combination (Bowl, n. md. hy wooden des. a.) ; and the words, mod. 
hy a det. a., apply to the whole combination [ (Bowl. n. md. hy wooden, des. 
a.) md. hy pretty des. a.'] By means of the parenthetic marks thus employed, 
and the abbreviations adopted to express the several forms of modification, 
a satisfactory analysis can be written with considerable brevity and per- 
spicuity. 



more adjectives sometimes applied to the sam6 word ? How usually connected ? Illustrate 
by an example. (16) Mention another case of the application of two adjectives to the same 
word. (17) Illustrate by an example. (18) What is said of the modification pretty in the 
example? (19) What is said of the order of arrangement of such complements, or modifi- 
cations? (20) What remark is made about the use of two adjectives in this way? (21) 



262 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 86. 

are not very often employed in this way, but determinatives, as we 
shall find, are very frequently applied to nouns affected by a descrip- 
tive adjective, so as to modify or limit the united adjective and noun. 
(21) Nouns modified by a noun adjectuely employed expressive of the 
material of which an object is made, or, as some consider them in this 
use, adjectives expressing the material, are often, together with their 
more intimate complement, modified by an additional adjective. For 
example, An [expensive {gold tcatcJi.)] A Tjeautiful niarMe statue. An 
elegant silver lamp, &c. (22) Many examples might be given in which 
the more intimate modification is an adjective expressing the country 
in which an article is produced or manufactured. A superb French 
clocli-; a valuable English watch; A beautiful TurTcish carpet; An 
elegant Etruscan vase, &c. (23) The following are examples of a dif- 
ferent class : A rich gilded ceiling. The beautiful blue slcy. 

(24) The learner should remark that the practice of suppressing 
the conjunction between adjectives which are really intended as dis- 
tinct modifications of a noun is common, especially with the poets. 
For example. The deep blue sea. This does not mean the blue sea which 
is deep, but the sea which is both blue and deep. " The deep unclouded 
shy" meaning the sky which is both deep and unclouded. 

[ (25) There is another construction often employed by the poets, 
which must be distinguished from those mentioned above. This is the use 
of an adjective adverbially to modify another adjective. (26) This poetic 
use may be illustrated by the following example : " The deep rooted 
mountains," &c. Here the word deep (generally employed as a descrip- 
tive adjective) modifies neither mountains taken separately nor the 
combined words rooted mountains. It is not implied by the expres- 
sion that the mountains are deep, nor that the rooted mountains are 
deep, but that the mountains are deep-rooted, equivalent to deeply 
rooted. Consequently, deep performs the function of modifying an 
adjective — a function usually ascribed exclusively to adverbs. 

(27) We may also remark, that descriptive abjectives have, in 
many cases, become so united with nouns as to form with them one 
word. Such words may be treated in analysis as nouns, or compound 



Eepeat what is said about nouns modified by a noun adjectively employed ? Illustrate by 
an example. (22) Of what might numerous examples be given ? (23) Give examples in 
which the more intimate modification is not expressive of country. 

(24) What fact is the learner warned to remark ? Illustrate by examples. 

[(25) Mention another distinct purpose for which adjectives are used by the poets. (26 
Illustrate this poetic use fully by an example. 

(27) State what is said of compound words formed of an adjective and anoun modified 
by it. Illustrate by examples.] 



§ 87.] ADJECTIVES EMPLOYED SUBSTANTIVELY. 263 

nouns. We have examples in smallcraft. llacTcberry^ llacTcMrd^ white- 
lead^ whitewash^ &c.] 

(28) The functions of participles are tlie same as those of de- 
scriptive adjectives. We subjoin a few examples for analysis. We 
mark, as usual, the words which the learner should now be able to 
analyze. 

ExEEciSE I. — Wise men profit l)y the sad experience of fools. Idle 
l)oys seldom hecome useful men. The wMte rose was the em'blem of\hQ 
house of YorTc. The red rose was the emblem of the house of Lancas- 
ter. 

" Our dying friends come o'^er us like a cloud 
To damp our brainless ardors.'^'' — Young. 
" Now morn^ her rosy steps in the eastern clime 
Advancing^ sowed the earth with orient pearl.— Milt. 

Exercises II., III., &c. — A given number of propositions containing 
examples of descriptive adjectives. 

§ 87. (1) We have already had occasion to notice incidentally 
that adjectives are frequently employed substantively ; we must 
here bring this fact more directly under the consideration of the 
learner. (2) The largest class of adjectives substantively employed, 
are those with which the noun men, or persons, &c., is implied. 

(3) Such are the rich, the poor, the wise, the learned, the rude, the 
vulgar, the noble, the good, the virtuous, the vicious, the just, the 
pious, &c., &c., equivalent to rich men, poor men, &c. (4) No 
other noun is suppressed with such words except men or persons, 
and hence, by conventional usage, they serve the double function 
of denoting objects, and, at the same time, qualifying them, or, in 
other words, they signify objects with an accompanying and distin- 
guishing property. (5) In such cases \he property, or qualification, 
is that which is most important — that which is intended to be ex- 
pressed with emphasis. (6) Such terms are all concrete, they are 
used to denote substances, not abstract properties. 

(28) What is said of the functions of participles, or verbal adjectives? 
§ 87. (1) To what fact is the attention of the learner here called ? (2) What is said of 
the largest class of adjectives employed substantively ? (3) Mention a number of examples. 

(4) What noun is always suppressed after adjectives thus emploj^ed? And what double 
function do these adjectives serve ? (5) What is remarked of the qualiification expressed by 
the adjective in such contracted forms of expression ? (6) To which class of nouns do such 
terms belong ? 



264 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 87. 

JS'oTE. — In languages which have distinct inflected forms of the adjective 
to be appHed to nouns of different genders, adjectives can be employed as 
substantives to a much greater extent than in English, without any sacrifice of 
perspicuity. For example, the adjective bonus used alone in the Latin language, 
clearly indicates a good man, bonum, a good thing ; the plural boni, good men, 
or the good, and bona, good things, and hence, goods, effects. Sometimes, also, the 
feminine forms of certain adjectives are used to denote females possessed of the 
property indicated by the adjective. A great number of the Latin adjectives 
are thus used with the suppression of a word=pe)'son or persons, thing or 
things, thus representing two distinct nouns in both numbers, whilst we are 
necessarily confined by the nature of our language, which has no inflexion 
of adjectives to denote gender, to the expression of one noun, and that only 
in the plural. Thing or things we cannot indicate in this way. "Whereas, 
the Latin language always indicates thing, singular and plural, in its most 
common use as employed in company with an adjective by the adjective 
alone. In fact, there is no word in the Latin language which answers to our 
word thing, used as above described. There is no need for such a word. 
The neuter forms of the adjectives supply its place. "We must not omit to 
remark here, that numerous instances of adjectives used substantively, a 
singular noun being suppressed, may be found in the authorized version of 
the Scriptures. Take the following as examples : " So the poor hath hope." 
" The wicked borroweth a,nd payeth not again ; but the righteous sheweth mercy, 
and giveth," &c. Here the singular noun man, is obviously to be supplied. 
This employment of descriptive adjectives to represent singular, as well as 
plural, concrete nouns is rarely, if ever, to be found in modern writers. It 
has very properly fallen into disuse, since it would necessarily create ambi- 
guity, especially when such adjectives happen to serve as the subject nouns 
of verbs in any other than the indefinite tense, and when they are employed 
as complementary nouns. For example, " The righteous shall inherit the 
land ; The mouth of the righteous speaketh wisdom." It is only by the context 
that we ascertain that " the righteous" here represents an individual. Ambi- 
guity in such cases is, however, of little importance, as there is no material 
difference in the sense, whether we consider the word singular or plural. 

(V) There is anotlier class of adjectives substantively employed, 
whichi, unlike those already mentioned, are singular nouns. They 
are also entitled to be classed as abstract iiouns, since they do not de- 
note substances, but properties or attributes contemplated separately 
from the objects or substances with which they co-exist. (8) We 
subjoin examples : The sublime, the beautiful, the infinite, the finite., 
the ridiculous, the pathetic, the vast, the profound, &c. (9) These 
are generally philosophical terms. 

(7) In what two respects does another class of adjectives substantively employed differ 
from those just considered ? (8) Give examples. (9) Eepeat the remark xinder No. 9. 



§ 87.] OF ADJECTIVES EMPLOYED SUBSTANTIVELY. 265 

(10) It will be observed that with these, as with the class already- 
considered, the determinative the is invariably employed. (11) 
This is essential in the employment of all adjectives in either of these 
ways in English. 

(12) Should the same adjective happen to be used in both these 
ways, as a concrete plural noun, and as an abstract singular noun, 
it would create ambiguity. The adjective beautiful^ is very com- 
monly used in the latter way, and sometimes, we think, the beauti- 
ful is used in the first way to mean persons possessed of beauty. This 
use of the word is rare, and it seldom happens that any of the ad- 
jectives used as abstract singular nouns are the same which are 
used as concrete plurals. 

(14) In analysis the concretes may be treated as adjectives, the 
learner supplying the suppressed noun, or, more briefly, they may 
be classed as adjectives substantively used — concrete plurals. (15) 
The abstracts must be treated as adjectives used as abstract nouns, 
since, in their case, there is really no original suppression of a 
noun. They are adjectives employed to express a t^q-w abstract con- 
ception^ which had no previous name. It would generally prove 
a vain search to attempt to find a supp'essed noun. 

(16) Both these forms of expression are often employed both 
as subject nouns of propositions, and to perform some of the mod- 
ifying functions. 

"We subjoin a few examples for analysis. 

Exercise I. — To despise the poor becomes not the rich. The proud 
are liated by their fellow men. The 'oain are despised by the wise. 
" Hetaketh \h^wise in theiv own craftiness ; the counsel of the froward 
is carried headlong." The simple are the prey of the crafty. "The 
prudent are crowned with IcnowledgeP " The light of the righteous 
rejoiceth ; the lamp of the loicTced shall be put out.'''' There is but a 
single step from the sublime to the ridiculous. The fnite cannot com- 
prehend the infinite. " To the sublime in building ., greatness of dimen- 



(10) In what are these words like the last class ? (11) And what is essential to adjec- 
tives employed in both ways ? . 

(12) What would happen were the same adjective employed in both ways? (13) Name 
an adjective perhaps used both ways. 

(14) How may the concrete class of these words be treated in analj^sis ? (15) Sow must 
tho abstracts be treated? and assign the reasons. 

(16) How are both kinds of words employed ? 



266 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 88. 

sions seems requisite."' " The ideas of the sublime and the leautiful stand 
on foundations so different^'''' &c. 

Exercise IL, III., &c. — Form propositions having their suhjects 
completed by descriptive adjectives. lY., Y., &c. Having objective 
modifications, and other modifications, consisting of nouns completed, 
by descriptive adjectives. 

§ 88. 2d. We now proceed to consider the second general func- 
tion of descriptive adjectives, namely, that of completing verbs. (1) 
We may call this the predicative use of the adjective* (2) This 



* It must not be inferred, from the fact that we treat this use of 
the descriptive adjectives after the attributive use, that we agree with the 
grammarians who consider this use as posterior in origin, or as in all cases 
resolvable into the attributive use. On the contrary, we are inclined to 
think that adjectives (we do not say all adjectives) were employed to com- 
plete the predicate (especially with the verb to be) earlier than to modify 
the subject. In the nascent state of human society, men would likely need 
adjectives for the purpose of declaring to one another the properties of the 
objects around them, before they needed them as modifications of subject 
nouns. We think, for example, that men would sooner need to make such 
assertions in their interchange of thought as, The weather is cold, The river 
is deep, or dangerous, &c., than they would need to make some assertion in 
regard to cold weather, or a deep or dangerous river. The use of attributive 
words to express more exactly a complex conception, we look on as a refine- 
ment in language, required only after a step had been taken towards philo- 
sophical thinking, however rude. The purpose of modifying the subject 
was, we think, most likely first attempted by the addition of a proposition 
to the subject noun. Indeed the descriptive adjective modification may be 
considered as a species of latent or implied predication. For example, The 
good man is loved, is equivalent to The man who is good is loved. Here the 
proposition who is good, expresses what is, in the present improved state of 
language, generally expressed in the more compressed form by the adjective 
applied as an attributive to the subject noun. (See § 111.) 

Eemember, we do not say that all adjectives were invented for the jDur- 
pose of being employed to complete the predicate. If such a step as we 
have described has really been taken in language, it must have preceded 
the origin of many of the adjectives now in use. Many of these have mani- 
festly been designed from the beginning, exclusively for the purpose of 
modifying nouns, and not for the purpose of completing the predicate. In 
this class we may include all the determinative adjectives, and many of the 



§ 88. (1) What may the second function of adjectives be called ? (2) To what is this 



§ 88.] ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF VERBS. 267 

function of the descriptive adjective, is exactly similar to that of the 
noun complementary of the verb. (3) Like the noun complementary , 
the adjective is attached to neuter and to active and to passive 
verbs. (4) If the learner bears in mind what has been said of the 
noun complementary of the neuter and active verbs, it will assist 
him much in comprehending what we shall say in reference to ad- 
jectives employed to complete verbs ; that is, to complete the part 
of i]iQ, predicate expressed in the verbs. (5) For it will be remem- 
bered that, as in the case of all other complements of verbs, it is 
not the verb as an assertive word, but the ve^^b as expressing (what 
it always does) the leading part of the predicate which is affected 
by the complement. (6) In other words, it is not the copula, but 
the predicate, which in all cases is affected by modification. (7) 
Hence, as we have before said, verbal nouns and verbal adjectives 
take the same complements or modifications as the verb or assertive 
word itself. 

(8) To mark the close analogy between the descriptive adjective, 
used to complete the predicate, and the noun employed for the 
same purpose, and at the same time to assist the memory of the 
learner, by introducing as much simplicity and clearness as possible 
in classification and in nomenclature, we give names to these adjec- 
tive modifications of the verb, exactly similar to those which we 
gave to nouns used to complete verbs. (9) We call them The 

ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF THE NEUTER VERB, ThE ADJECTIVE 



descriptive. As, for example, those which express the material of which a 
thing is made, such as golden, brazen, wooden, &c. These are not now employed 
to complete the predicate, and perhaps never were so employed. They have 
been adopted as now vised, for the express purpose of modifying nouns, not 
verbs. But the use of determinatives must be looked on as a refinement 
introduced later than descriptive adjectives in the progress of language ; and 
such descriptive adjectives as those mentioned above, have about them the 
indications of modern introduction. 



function of the descriptive adjective similar? (8) In what is it like the noun complemen- 
tary? (4) Repeat the suggestion to the learner. (5) What is it in the verb that is affected 
by this and by other complements ? (6) Express the same thing in other words. (7) What 
follows from this in reference to verbal nouns and verbal adjectives ? 

(8) Repeat substantially the motives which have influenced us in choosing a name 
for this species of modification. (9) "What is the name by which we distinguish this kind 
of modifications in reference to the classes of verbs to which they are applied? 



268 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 88. 

COMPLEMENTARY OF THE ACTIVE VERB, and ThE ADJECTIVE COMPLE- 
MENTARY OF THE PASSIVE VERB."^' 

The ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF THE NEUTER VERB. (lO) 

This complement is most extensively employed with the verb to be. 
(11) "We subjoin a few examples: The steward is faithful ; The 
hoy is industrious ; The fields are green ; The weather is warm ; 
Vanity is contemjptible ; Pride is detestable ; Industry is commend- 
able. (12) We need not multiply examples, since this is in fact 
one of the most common forms of construction in all languages. 
Mankind have constantly occasion to iwedicate or assert the ex- 
istence of attributes, or qualities in the objects which come within 
their knowledge. 

Note. — ^We have already, elsewhere, had occasion to observe, that the 
adjective thus employed with the verb to he, is generally thought by lo- 
gicians and grammarians to contain (either alone or with its appropriate 
complements) the entire predicate, and the verb to perform solely the func- 
tion of copula. We have given our reasons for thinking that this opinion, 
so long and so generally entertained by the philosophical world, is destitute 
of foundation, and for holding, as we do, that the verb to he, in its assertive 
form, includes either the entire predicate, or the leading part of the predi- 
cate, like all other verbs. The verbal noun being, is exactly equivalent to 
the predicate contained in this verb, as we have elsewhere endeavored to 
establish, by an appeal to the understandings of our readers. What is 
asserted or predicated in such propositions as, The steward is faithful, is being 
faithfid, not barely the attribute faithful. But, for the more full examina- 
tion of this matter, we refer to § 46, and note. Here it is only necessary to 
remind the learner of the manner in which we view this subject, and our 
reason for treating the adjective, in this kind of construction, as comple- 



* We omit the term descriptive before the adjective, as in this case un- 
necessary ; though it will be remembered, that rarely any other than a de- 
scriptive adjective is used in this way. If an adjective employed generally 
as a detei'minative, is sometimes used to complete the predicate, it is in this 
case to be considered as performing a descriptive function. For instance, in 
such expressions as, "The laborers are few," the word few — generally em- 
ployed as a determinative — is, perhaps, to be considered as a descriptive ad- 
jective, expressing an attribute belonging to the "laborers," collectively 
considered, and here (with being) predicated of them. 



(10) With what verb is the adjective complementary of neuter verbs chieiiy employed? 
(li) Give examples. (12) Why is it unnecessary for us to multiply examples ? 



§ 88.] ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF THE NEUTER VERB. 269 

mentary of the verb or of the predicate ; in other words, as a part only, and 
not the whole of the predicate. * 

For the same reason assigned above, Ave do not subjoin nu- 
merous examples for analysis. We rather leave the learner to fur- 
nish his own examples of this very plain and familiar construction, 
assured that this will prove no dijfficult task. 

(13) All that is necessary to be said in analysis in reference to 
the adjective in a construction of this kind is, that the verb, for ex- 
ample in the proposition The man is ignorant, is modified or com- 
pleted by the complementary adjective ignorant. When the 
learner has become familiar with these terms, he may omit comple- 
mentary^ and after having given the usual account of the subject 
noun and verb, simply add that the verb is completed by the 
adjective — naming the adjective which occurs in the particular 
case. 

Exercises I. II. &c. — Supply a given number of written propositions 
formed with the verb to le in its several tenses, accompanied in each 
instance by a complementary adjective making a predicate, such as can 
rationally be asserted of the subject chosen. 

(14) The neuter verb become is generally modified in the same 
manner. It is always completed either by an adjective or by a 
noun, and never stands as the complete predicate.'^ 

(15) Examples of Become, with an adjective complementary. That 
man becomes old ; The boy has become impatient ; James will become 
learned ; That nation has become powerful ; John has become generous^ 
&c. The verb grow is similarly modified, as, The field grows green ; 
The boy grows large^ &c. 

Many other neuter verbs are completed in the same manner, though 
not so frequently as the verbs we have just noticed. (16) Amongst 
those thus occasionally completed^ we may enumerate the following : 



* In this it is unlike the verb to be, which stands, as we have seen already, 
often as the complete predicate ; much oftener in reality than in our lan- 
guage is apparent at the first glance. (See § 46, Note p. 81.) 



(13) Repeat the substance of the direction in reference to the analysis of this species of 
modification. 

(14) What is said in reference to the verb ieeome ? (15) Give examples. 

(16) Enumerate some of the neuter verbs which admit of the same kind of modification 



270 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 88. 

LooTc^ seem^ feel^ taste^ smelly dlow^ shine^ remove, stand, continue, &c. 
Some of these words are used both as active and as neuter verbs. We 
have concern v^^ith them here only in their neuter signification. We 
subjoin examples of some of these verbs, accompanied by a comple- 
mentary adjective. (17) The analysis of these examples is to be con- 
ducted as in the case of the verbs to le, to hecome, to groio, completed 
by an adjective. 

Examples foe Analysis. — Mary loolcs cold. William seems disap- 
pointed. BlacJc feels rough, white feels smooth. Honey tastes sweet. 
Roses smell fragrant. The wind dloics soft. The moon shone iright. 
The worlc remains unfinished. The door stands open. The imather 
continues stormy. We take the following examples from D'Orsey. The 
first is altered from the imperative to the assertive form : — 

He loolcs tig. "He turns pale." — Addison. "Half the women 
would have fallen sicJc.^'' — Addison. " A miser grows rich by seeming 
poor ; an extravagant man grows poor by seeming rich.'''' — Shenstone. 
" Dappled horses turn white.'''' — Bacon. " They all shall wax old." — 
Heb. 1:11. " This horror will grow mild.'''' — Milton. 
" With what eyes could we 
Stand in his presence hunible, &c." — Milton. 

(18) After looh and seem the infinitive to de might be supplied 
without injury to the sense, and some may choose to take this mode 
of analyzing the propositions in which these verbs occur, followed by 
an adjective; saying, in such cases, that they are completed by the 
verb to he suppressed, and considering the adjective as complementary 
of the suppressed infinitive. We have no objection to this course. 
We believe the infinitive necessary to the full expression of the asser- 
tion. But when this is once understood, we consider it unnecessary 
on every occasion to supply the omitted infinitive. 

(19) This remark will not apply to most of the other verbs enume- 
rated. The introduction of the infinitive to he between the verb and 
adjective is inadmissible, as it would mar the sense. And yet the ex- 
istence of the quality expressed by an adjective in connection with the 
subject is perhaps always implied ; i. e. the existence of the quality in the 
subject in the mode or manner expressed by tlie verb. Thus, Honey tastes 
sweet. Here the quality sioeet is asserted to exist in honey in connec- 
tion with its taste, or in the mode or manner expressed by the verb taste. 



(17) What remark is made about the analysis of the subjoined examples ? (18) What is 
said in reference to the analysis of the propositions in which the verbs loolc and seem occur ? 
(19) Will the remark in regard of the verbs looJc and seem apply to the other verbs above 
enumerated ? Kepeat the substance of the illustration. 



§89.] ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF THE ACTIVE VERB. 2Yl 

[ (20) "We must be careful to distinguish this species of modification 
from the adverbial modification to be considered presently. The 
adjective in the case before us expresses an attribute pertaining 
to the sudject in connection with the predicate^ or together with the 
verb expresses the condition of the subject ; the adverb expresses only 
the manner of the action of the verd, or some circumstance affecting 
the assertion in general, as of time, place, &c. Or, in other words, an 
attribute of the action asserted, not of the subject itself of which it 
is asserted. A few examples will render this more clear : John feels 
warm, and John feels warmly. In the first proposition the adjective 
warm expresses an attribute of John in connection with the predicate 
feeling ; or, perhaps, rather we should say, warm with the predicate 
feeling expresses a condition here asserted of John. The wind Mows 
soft; The wind Mows softly . The same remark will apply here. A 
wind that is not soft may blow softly — that is, gently ; but none, ex- 
cept a wind possessing the attribute expressed by soft, can truly be 
said to How soft. "We may subjoin a few more examples : William 
looJcs proud, and William loolcs proudly on the result of his persevering 
efforts. That lady loolcs cold ; and That lady loolcs coldly on the gen- 
tleman ly her side. In all these cases, the difference between the ad- 
jective and advtrb is plain enough.] 

ExEEOiSE. — After the analysis of the above examples, the learner 
may construct a given number of propositions with the verbs enume- 
rated above, containing examples of the adjective complementary ap- 
propriately employed with these verbs. 

"We may remark that sometimes active verbs seem to take an adjective 
complementary, having reference like the adjective complementary of the 
neuter verb to the subject noun. Examples of what we mean may be found 
in such expressions as, John spends his time thoughtless of the purposes of 
existence. There are three ways in which thoughtless and its modifications 
might here be regarded ; 1st, as a descriptive adjective, modifying John the 
subject noun ; 2d, as an adjective adverbially used, expressing manner and 
modifying the predicate ; or, 3d, as an adjective complementary, expressing 
an attribute applicable to John in the mode of spending his time. This last 
we think the most accurate mode of analysis. Constructions of this kind 
are seldom used. This is altogether unlike the adjective complementaiy of 
the active verb, which affects not the subject but the objective. 

S 89. The Adjective Complementary of the Active Verb. 



[(20) Eepeat the substance of the remarks in reference to thg distinction between an ad- 
jective complementary modification and an adverbial modification.] 



2l2 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 89. 

— We now pass on to consider tlie adjective complementary of the 
ACTIVE verb. 

(1) This complement is very similar to the noun complementary 
of the active verb. (2) The difference is this : when the noun com- 
plementa7y is used, we intimate that the passive object becomes 
something substantive by the action expressed by the verb ; on the 
contrary, when the adjective complementary is used, we intimate 
that the passive object becomes possessed of some property or at- 
tribute, by the action expressed by the verb. (3) When allowance 
is made for this difference, nearly all that we have said in reference 
to the noun complementary will apply to the adjective complementary 
of the active verb. 

(4) It will be observed that here the adjective does not as when 
employed with the neuter verb express the condition of the sub- 
ject as affected by the action indicated by the verb, but the condi- 
tion of the p)<^ssive object under the influence of the action indicated 
by the active verb. (5) It expresses the complement of the action 
which affects the passive object. For example. Virtue renders life 
HAPPY. Here happy expresses the condition of life, as influenced 
by the action of virtue, or a property of which life becomes pos- 
sessed through the action asserted of virtue. Happy thus completes 
renders. (6) The complete action asserted here of virtue is render- 
ing happy, and this action has for its objective modification life — 
the word expressing that to which the complete action, " rendering 
happy ^"^ is in this assertion limited or directed. 

We submit a number of examples of the adjective complemen- 
tary of the active verb, in order that this construction may be more 
perfectly understood. 

" We call the proud happy." Analysis. After going through the 
analysis in the usual manner till we come to the modifications attached 
to the verb, we say the verb call is here modified by the complemen- 
tary adjective happy, and the predicate (thus completed) calling happy 



% 89. (1) To Ts^hat other form of complement is the adjective complementary of the ac- 
tive verb said to be similar ? (2) What is the only difference between these two modifica- 
tions? (3) Will what has been said of the one apply to the other? 

(4) Repeat what is said of the distinction between the adjective used with the neuter 
and with the active verb. .(5) What does tho adjective used with the active verb express ? 
Illustrate by an example. (6) Continue the illustration. 



§ 89.] ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF THE ACTIVE VERB. 2*73 

is further modified by the objective modification j^w^*^, which is an 
adjective siibstantively used. 

Eemaek. — The learner may follow this model as regards the con- 
struction we are considering, giving the full analysis of all the propo- 
sitions, which we are about to adduce as examples. 

'•'■All nations shall call him blessed." '•'' MaJce us glab^ " Op 
pression maketh a wise man mad." " Hope deferred maTceth the heart 
SICK." " Thou maTcest the earth soft with showers^ Men call the 
prosperous happy ; Oh, when will they learn to thinh the mrtuous 
alone happy? The true philosopher accounts the good man happy. 
" Leave the lily pale., and tinge the molet hlueP This struck me duml>. 

(7) The usual place of the adjective complementary of the active verl) 
is, like the noun complementary., after the o'bjective modification., as in 
the examples now given. (8) But it is sometimes placed between 
the verb and the objective modification., especially when the objective 
is accompanied by modifications. (9) This will be seen in the follow- 
ing example. " The streams whereof shall make glad the city of God.'''' 
Here, because the nonn '•'' city'''' is modified by the noun and preposi- 
tion " of 6^(9^," which a regard to perspicuity forbids to be separated 
from it, the complementary adjective '■'•glad'''' is more conveniently 
placed first. (10) A complementary adjective is sometimes employed 
with the verb make., and the expression so formed employed in a gene- 
ral sense — without the limitation of an oVjective modification. For 
example: '-'• I make aliveP — Deut. 82: 39. Compare 2 Kings, 5: T. — 
" The hand of the diligent maketh rich." (11) The force of the com- 
plementary adjective is perhaps better seen in such examples. (12) It 
is manifestly here a complement of the verl)., and not a mere modifica- 
tion of the objective of the verb, as grammarians have very generally 
considered it, when in company with an objective. (13) AVe might 
multiply at pleasure examples of the use of complementary adjectives 
with the verb make. Such as, " Make thee fruitful^'' " Make thee 
'plenteousP '•'■Make thy way prosperous.'''' '■''Make themselves clean.''"' 
" God made man upright.'''' '•'•Make manifest the counsel of the heart." 
Here the complementary adjective comes before the objective noun., 
and for the same reason, as was mentioned above, viz., because the 



(7) What is the usual place of the adjective complementary of the active verb in the 
arrangement of a proposition ? (8) Where is it sometimes placed, and for what reason ? 
(9) Illustrate by an example. (10) Repeat what is said in reference to a complementary ad- 
jective employed with the verb make ; and give examples. (11) Repeat the remark on these 
examples. (12) What is the adjective manifestly in such examples? (13) Adduce more 
examples of the verb make thus completed. 
18 



2*74 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 89. 

objective " cou7iseV'' is accompanied by the modifying words " of the 
'heart.'''' 

(14) As in the case of the noun complementary of the active 'oei^h, 
so. in the case of an adjective used after an activ^e verb, the infinitive 
TO BE seems often to be implied in the construction. (15) Thus, We 
thought him wise. We considered Mm prudent. They found him 
INCAPABLE, or IGNORANT, or FOOLISH, or HONEST, &c. (1 6) Thcse ex- 
pressions may be considered, and may be treated in analysis, as abbre- 
viated for. We thought him to be ici^e, &o. And then the pronoun 
him with the verb to be, having wise for its complementary adjective^ 
will be noun and infinitive contracted accessory complementary of the 
verbs, to thinly &c. (See § 142 : 28.) 

(17) As in the case of the noun complementary of the active verh, 
these adjectives complementary of the active verd are retained when 
the passive form of expression is employed. (18) They may then be 
called adjectives complementary of the passive verl. (19) Thus, The 
Athenians called Aristides just, becomes in the passive form, Aristides 
was called just l)y the Athenians. (20) The remarks made already in 
regard to the noun complementary employed with passive verls^ will 
apply, without much change, to the adjective thus employed. (See 
§ T8.)* 

It will be proper to bring all these kindred forms of the noun and 
the adjective complementary together, that their close similarity of 
character may be exhibited more clearly to the learner. The arrange- 
ment of these complements.^ which we are about to present, will also 
serve the purpose of fixing them more strongly in the memory of the 
young grammarian. (21) We have, then. The noun complementary of 



""'There is a manner of employing adjectives after verbs, especially prev- 
alent in poetry, which perhaps has originated in an insennhle extension of 
the construction we are now considering ; and which we may call for the 
sake of distinction, the adjective adverbially employed. This use (or abuse) of 
adjectives we shall be able to explain with less trouble after we have con- 
sidered the adverbs. We also reserve, till we come to the adverbs, the re- 
marks which we have to make on the distinction between adjectives and 
adverbs. 

(14) What word seems to be often implied in these constructions ? (15) Illustrate by 
examples. (16) How may the expressions given as examples be treated in analysis ? 

(17) What happens when the passive form of expressing sucli assertions is used ? (18) 
How may the adjective be called, when the passive form is used? (19) Illustrate by ex- 
amples. (20) What remarks apply in this case? 

(21) Enumerate the various species of the noun connpUmentary and of the adjective 
complementary, and give an example of each from the table. 



§ 90.] NOUN AND ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY. REMARKS. 2*75 

the NEUTER verb^ the noun complementary of the active verb^ and the 
noun complementary of the passive verb. "We have, in like manner, 
the adjective complementary of the neuter verb., the adjective complemen- 
tary of the active verb., and the adjective complementary of \hQ passive 
verb. We exhibit these symmetrically in the following table, with an 
example of each form of complement annexed : 

Noxm Complementary. Adjective Complementary. 

Neut. V. The boy becomes a man. The boy becomes manly. 

Act. V. "Thoxi hast made thy servant Jcijig." "They made the king glad." 

Pass. V. "The Word was made^esA." "The simple is made wise." 

§ 90. General Observations on these Forms oe Modification. — 
These forms of modification have been, as we have already observed, 
first treated with that attention which their importance demands by 
the German grammarians. We exclude, of course, from this asser- 
tion the particular case of adjectives used with the verb to be, since 
much has been said of the construction of this verb with adjectives 
by grammarians and logicians in all ages. But from the view com- 
monly taken of this construction, we have felt obliged by our convic- 
tions to record our dissent ; the reasons for this dissent we have stated 
fully in another place. (See § 46, and note.) The Germans, too, so 
far as we know, have treated the adjectives after the verb to be., like 
all other grammarians, as forming the predicate of the propositions in 
which they are found, and the verb itself as being the simple copula., 
including no part of the predicate. But all these constructions exhi- 
bited in the above table, viz., the noun and the adjective complemen- 
tary with all neuter verbs, except the verb to be., and the noun and 
the adjective with active and with passive verbs, the German gram- 
marians have called the construction of the factitive object, divid- 
ing this factitive object., into the factitive noun, the factitive infinitive., 
the factitive adjective.^ and the factitive noun and preposition. This 
last we have not thought it necessary to notice, or to distinguish among 
the noun and preposition complements., as in form it differs nothing 
from the others. It is only distinguished by the meaning which it 
conveys — a distinction, as the logicians would call it, of matter not of 
/(?rm, and therefore not essential to language. We liave an example 
of what the Germans mean by the factitive object expressed by a noun 
and a preposition in the assertion, toater was changed into wine. Here 
" into wme" expresses the factitive object — that into which the water 
was changed. 

The name factitive object has been given to this species of com- 



276 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 90. 

plements by the German grammarians from the circnmstance that they 
often express that which in the neuter and passwe construction the 
subject is represented to be made or constituted^ and in the active con- 
struction, that which the passive object is represented to be made or 
constituted^ or represented to be tTimight or imagined to be made or 
constituted. The name seems to have been adopted from regarding as 
peculiarly conspicuous, among such constructions, examples like those 
given above, formed with the verb make. To us the name appears to 
be not sufficiently comprehensive to embrace all the constructions 
which the Germans themselves have classed under it. This objection 
becomes still stronger when we bring into the same class of construc- 
tions (as we have done) the nouns and the very numerous adjectives 
which complete the verb to te. "We regard the nouns and adjectives 
attached to the verb to 5e, as performing precisely the same kind of 
function, which nouns and adjectives attached to other neuter verbs per- 
form. We cannot, therefore, consistently with these views follow the 
German grammarians in the employment of the name factitive odject, 
as applicable to this whole class of complements. First, this term is 
not sufficiently comprehensive ; and to use it might, on this account, 
only mislead the student. He might suppose that the term expresses a 
leading pecuharity commori to this whole class of constructions — the 
factitive object implying some effect produced — in which he would find 
himself mistaken. Secondly, the term refers not to th.Q form of lan- 
guage, but to the matter expressed. K'ow all grammatical divisions 
and terms should, as far as possible, refer to the proper subject of 
grammar, viz. : Hheform of expression, and not to the mutter express- 
ed. "We do not deny that the grammarian may often profitably have 
recourse in his inquiries to the matter of expression — to tliouglit. But 
his classifications and terms ought to have their foundation as much 
as possible in the peculiar properties of language — that is, in the 
peculiar properties of Xheform of expression. We have not been able 
to find a term that suits us to replace the German term. Such a term we 
want, as will adequately express the common properties, or some lead- 
ing common property, of this whole class of complements. Till such 
term can be found, the kindred nature of these modifications may 
be indicated by the term complementary^ common to the names which 
we have given to them severally, and which we have purposely con- 
fined exclusively to this particular class. 

We may remark here the difficulties which grammarians have to encoun- 
ter {experto credite), who have unthinkingly admitted that the distinction 
between adjectives and adverbs is, that adjectives modify or qualify nouns, 



§ 90.] REMARKS ON NOUN AND ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY. 277 

and advei'bs, on the conti*aiy, modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
They may call the adjective after the verb to be, the predicate, and say 
(without being able to allege a good reason, and in contradiction to all seem- 
ing likelihood) that a noun is always implied with such adjectives ; that, 
for example, in the proposition. The man is virtuous, the noun man is implied 
in the predicate = The man is a virtuous man. This supposition appears to 
■ us wholly gratuitous, implying the actual existence at a remote period of an 
awkward form of expression in all languages, which we could not, perhaps, 
satisfactorily prove to have ever had customary place, at any period, in any 
langiiage. Still, this manner of treating the adjective after the verb to be is 
incomparably better than to confound it, as some loose thinkers (perhaps we 
should not call them grammarians) have done, with the ordinary adjective 
modification, and make it agree with and belong to the subject noun. The 
same persons treat the adjective complementary of the active verb as a mere 
modifying adjective attached to the objective noun. According to the gram- 
matical teachings of such j)ersons, we could establish no distinction in analy- 
sis between propositions so diverse as. We call the boy good, and We call the 
good boy. But, to return to the more consistent grammarians and logicians, 
who, to establish the assertion that adjectives never comjjlete verbs, hold 
that a noun is always implied with every adjective in forming the predicate 
in propositions made with the verb to be, what will they say of the adjec- 
tive in such examples as. Honey tastes sweet, The weather feels cold. The 
fields look GREEN ? What noun can be supplied in these and in numerous 
similar examples ? The fact appears to us incontestable — though a fact too 
long and too generally overlooked by grammarians — that adjectives are very 
extensively employed in all languages to complete verbs, and, consequently, 
that the true distinction between them and adverbs is to be sought in some- 
thing else, than the untenable assumption that adjectives modify nouns and 
adverbs modify verbs, &c. How much confusion and waste of thought has 
been occasioned by yielding inconsiderately to the authority of the com- 
monly received definitions of these two classes of modifying words ! 

We might, indeed, with more consistency assert that adjectives modify 
nouns exclusively ; since we hold that the predicate included in every verb 
is a noun, and that it is the predicate — the noun part of the verb — 
not the copula or assertive force that is completed by the complemen- 
tary adjective, as well as by every other form of modification. It may 
then be asked. Why not say at once, in accordance with our views, that the 
complementary adjective here, as elsewhere, modifies a noun — namely, the 
noun expressive of the predicate contained in the verb ? We answer, be- 
cause it would serve no useful purpose, and might mislead the learner. The 
only purpose which it could be expected to serve would be that of simplifi- 
cation ; and this purpose, in our opinion, it could not serve, since, as will 
be seen from all that we have said, we look on the adjective thus employed 
as performing a function in reference to the predicate entirely different from 



2*78 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 90. 

that which it performs as the descriptive raodification of an ordinaiy novm. 
(To retain a distinctio7i "where there is no difference is imjDhilosophical, and 
often leads to important errors. But to- get rid of a distinction where there 
is a real difference is equally un philosophical, and equally calculated to mis- 
lead.) 'We should, therefore, be obliged to resort to some means of discrimi- 
nating between this species of modification and the ordinary descriptive 
adjective modification ; and none is more convenient than that presented to ' 
us by the visual distinction of the classes of words to which they are applied. 
The descriptive adjective inodijication, to ordinary nouns, the adjective com- 
plementary to verbs and to verbal words. It must not, however, be forgotten 
that it is not as verbs (in the sense in which we use this term), that is, as 
assertive words, that verbs are susceptible of this species of modification, but 
in consequence of the nature of the matter which they express, altogether 
independent of the fact that it is expressed in the assertive form. Hence, like 
other modifications applicable to verbs, these are applicable to verbal nouns, 
and verbal adjectives. "We say, for example, To make a man glad, and mak- 
ing glad, as well as, makes glad, &q. 

The difference between the descriptive adjective modification and 
the complementary adjective modification., may, perhaps, be briefly 
stated thus. The descriptive adjective modification expresses a quality 
or property contemplated, as inherent in the object expressed by the 
noun to which it is applied; the complementary adjective does not 
express a quality inherent in the conception expressed by the verl) or 
predicate which it completes. On the contrary, when used with a 
neuter verb, it expresses an attribute asserted to pertain to the subject 
in the mode signified by the predicate in the neuter verb; and when 
used with an active verb, it expresses an attribute asserted to become 
the property of the passive object., in the mode or manner signified by 
the predicate contained in the active verb. To illustrate our meaning 
by examples : The weather is cold., The loeather grows cold., The weather 
feels cold. Here the attribute cold is asserted to pertain to the weatJier., 
in the first proposition in the mode or manner expressed by being ; in 
the second in the mode expressed by growing ; and in the third in the 
mode expressed \)j feeling. Again, A wise son maJces his father'' s heart 
GLAD ; The world calls the successful geeat. Here the quality ex- 
pressed by glad is asserted to become the property of a,father''s heart 
in the mode signified by making, and the quality great is asserted 
to become the property of the successful in the mode signified by calling. 

We have now finished what we have to say at present of the de- 
scriptive adjectives. We reserve what we have to say of the modi- 
fications which adjectives undergo, whether effected by infiexion or by 
the use of other words till Ave have considered the adverbs. 



§ 91.] OF DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 279 

§ 91. The Determinative Adjectives. — (1) We now proceed 
to make some remarks on the determinative adjectives. (2) We 
commence by enumerating the principal words of this kind in our 
language, since they are not, like the descriptive adjectives, a very 
numerous class. We shall enumerate them in groups, mentioning 
the names which grammarians have commonly given to these 
groups. We mention 

(3) 1st. An, which becomes a before a consonantal sound, and 
the. These two words have commonly been erected into a distinct 
pa7't of speech by the grammarians, and called the articles — an or a 
being styled the indefiriite^ and the the definite article. 

(4) 2d. The second group in our enumeration consists of the 
words called by the grammarians, the demonstrative pronouns, viz., 
this and that with their plural forms these and those, and the words 
yon and yonder. 

(5) 3d. We may count what the grammarians have called in- 
definite pronouns as a third group. Among these are enumerated 
all, any, both, few, many, much, no, none, other, another, several, 
some, such, whole, and perhaps some other words. 

(6) 4th. What are called distributive pronouns may be given 
as a fourth group. These are each, every, either, neither. 

(1) 5th. The possessive pronouns form a fifth class. These are 
my, thy, his, her, its, referring to a single person or thing, and our, 
your, their, to a plurality of persons or things. 

For more minute information in regard to some of these groups 
of determinatives, see additional observations on the determinatives 
and the pronouns. (See §§ 156, 158.) 

(8) 6th. We enumerate as the sixth and last group the numer- 
als, both the cardinal numbers one, tivo, three, four, (fee, and the 
ordinal numbers first, second, third, fourth, &c. 

(9) When a noun is accompanied both by a descriptive adjec- 



§ 91. (1) What name do we give to the second class of adjectives? (2) Are the adjec- 
tives of this class numerous ? , 

(3) Enumerate the first group of these adjectives and tell what is said of them. (4) 
Enumerate group second. (5) Group third, (6) Group fourth. (7) Group fifth. (8) 
Group sixth. 

(9) Eepeat the substance of what is said about the arrangement of tho determinative 
and illustrate by examples. 



280 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 91. 

tive and a determinative, the determinative is placed first, since it 
applies to the noun as described or modified by the other adjective, 
or in other words completes the phrase made up of the noun and 
descriptive adjective together. Examples : A virtuous man is es- 
teemed ; The good man is loved ; This upright man is prosperous ; 
That innocent man was acquitted ; Every vicious man is contemp- 
tible, &c. Here the determinatives a, the, this, that, every, affect not 
the noun man alone, but man as already modified by the descrip- 
tive words virtuous, good, upright, &c. Hence, according to the 
usual mode of arrangement already described (see §§ 80 and 86 : 
17-19), it is placed before all that it affects — before both the de- 
scriptive adjective and the noun. 

Exercises I., II., III., &c. — Let the learner form for himself a given 
number of propositions containing examples both of detei^minati'De oji.^ 
descrijjtive adjectives. When a determinative affects a united descrip- 
tive adjective and noun, let this be indicated by inclosing all that the 
determinative affects within parenthetic marks ; thus, A {spreading 
oalc?) (10) In analysis it will be sufficient to say in reference to a 
determinative adjective, that the noun which it affects is modified by 
the determinative adjective, or simply by the determinative, repeating 
the particular determinative. 

[(11) Words of this class do not, like the descriptive adjectives, ex- 
press a quality or property inherent in the things represented by the 
nouns to which they are attached. They only assist in giving a deter- 
minate meaning to the noun, or rather, in many cases, they merely in- 
dicate that the noun is employed determinately ; the determining 
infiuence arising from some other accompanying modification, or some- 
thing implied by the matter — the nature of the thought. (See addi- 
tional observations on determinatives, § 158.) (12) In other words, de- 
terminative adjectives indicate the manner in which the mind of the 
speaker views an object, and intends to present it, not any property or 
attribute inherent in the object itself. 

(13) It follows from the fact that the determinatives do not ex- 
press properties which pertain to objects, that they are not employed 
in completing \h.Q predicate — that is, as adjectives complementary of 



(10) In analysis what is to be said in reference to determinatives ? [(11) Eepeat the sub- 
stance of what is said in reference to the distinction between descriptive and determinative 
adjectives. (12) What do determinatives indicate ? 

(13) Are determinatives employed in completing the predicate ? (14) Illustrate by ex- 
amples.] 



§ 91.] OF DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 281 

verbs — except when a noun suppressed by ellipsis is manifestly implied 
in them, on which the mind rests as the real complementary word. 
(14) For example, we cannot say that any thing is^ or decomes, or 
grows, or feels, &c., a or the, or any, all, every, some, or even this or 
that, without something beyond implied, on which the mind rests, as 
the real complement of the predicate.] 

IN'oTE. — ^The word this apparently serves as complement of the predicate 
in such expressions as, The truth is this, he cannot succeed, because he is not 
industrious. Here either Ave rest on the- word truth implied again after 
this ; The truth is this truth, &c. ; or, rather, the determinative this in such 
cases is employed exactly in its usual function in reference, not to a single 
word, indeed, but to the following compound proposition. He cannot suc- 
ceed, (fee, which here performs the grammatical function of a noun comple- 
mentary of the predicate in the proposition having truth for subject, and is 
for verb. In corroboration of this latter view of the construction, it may 
be remai'ked that we can suppress the word this in the case before us, with- 
out altering, or indeed affecting the sense, save in a very slight degree. The 
truth is, he cannot succeed, (fee. The only diflference between the two forms of 
expression is, that in the first mentioned the predicated assertion is indicated 
as determinate — ^to that extent of determinateness which the sign this 
marks — that is, it is indicated as an assertion pointed out, as it were, to the 
eyes of the hearer. (See additional observations oyi determinatives, § 158.) 
There are a few words which seem to perform sometimes the part of determi- 
native, and sometimes of descriptive adjectives, and there are perhaps words 
in regard of which it is not easy to decide exactly under which class they 
should be ranged. Many men were present. Here many is obviously deter- 
minative. It indicates nothing inherent in the men, but simply the manner 
in which the mind of the speaker regards them. In other words, the modi- 
fication which the determinative many gives to the subject, is not essential 
to the truth of the proposition. The same assertion could be made of the 
men, whether regarded separately or collectively or in whatever way ; They 
were present. But when I say. Many hands make light work, the modifica- 
tion given by many is essential to the truth of the assertion. Many thus 
employed, ranks amongst the descriptive adjectives, and it can be employed 
in the same descriptive sense (as equivalent to numerous), as a ccmiplement 
of the predicate. For example. The spectators were many. The determina- 
tive few is used in the same way in the proposition, " The laborers are few." 
This has been already noticed. 



CHAPTER Vn. 



OF ADYEEBS. 

§ 92. General Remarks. (1) We now proceed to treat of 
another class of words, employed exclusively like the adjectives, for 
the purpose of modification. (2) This class of words has been 
called ADVERBS — ivorcls attached to verbs — because grammarians 
have generally entertained the notion that they perform a function 
in reference to verbs, similar to that which adjectives perform in 
reference to nouns. They have been considered, as it were, the 
adjectives of the verb. We shall have more to srj presently of the 
characteristic marks of adverbs. (3) In the mean time, one fact 
will enable the young grammarian to distinguish them from adjec- 
tives ; they are never employed alone to modify or complete a 
noim^ though the adjective is, as we have seen, often employed in 
completing ve7'bs. (4) The adverbs are easily distinguished from 
all other classes of words, except the prepositions adverbially em- 
ployed ; and these are all included in the hst given. § 81. 

(5) The adverbs may be regarded as the most recently formed 
class of words in all languages. (6) We could, in expressing our 
thoughts, dispense with the use of them more easily than we could 
dispense with the use of any other class of words. All we express 
by them, can generally be expressed with equal clearness by means 
of other forms of modification. (7) They may be regarded as 

§ 92. (1) For what genei-al purpose are the adverbs exclusiTsly employed ? (2) What 
is said in reference to the name adverl) f (3) By what fact may they he always distinguished 
from adjectives? (4) Eepeat what is said about distinguishing adverbs from prepositions 
in one of their uses. 

(5) How may the adverbs be regarded in reference to their antiquity ? (6) What is said 
in reference to dispensing with the use of adverbs? (7) To what form of expression may 
they be regarded as equivalent ? (S) Illustrate by examples. 



§ 92.] GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ADVERBS. 283 

abbreviated forms of expression^ equivalent to a modification, con- 
sisting of two, more frequently of three or four, distinct words — a 
preposition^ and a noun generally preceded by a descriptive adjec- 
tive, often by both a descriptive and a determinative adjective. (8) 
We subjoin a few examples, for the purpose of illustration : 

Wisely- = In a wise manner ; or in a wise way. 
Moderately = In a moderate manner. 
Now = At the preseiit time. 
Where = In what plo.ce / 
Why = For what reason? &c., &c. 

(9) The learner will readily discover that we could dispense 
with the use of the above and all similar adverbs, without any 
injury to the perspicuity of language; but he will, at the same 
time, see that they contribute greatly to compactness and brevity 
of expression. (10) The use of this class of words has thus an 
important influence on the strength of language, enabling us to 
avoid a multiplication of words, which, especially in the case of 
small words like prepositions and determinatives, tends greatly to 
enfeeble the expression of thought. (11) There are a few words 
classed with the adverbs, to which some of these remarks do not 
strictly apply, such as the negative particle not^ &c. But of this in 
another place. 

REMARKS IN REFERENCE TO THE FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS. 

(12) Adverbs are employed either to modify verbs, or to 
modify adjectives or other adverbs. (13) The great majority of 
this class of words is employed exclusively to modify verbs. (14) 
A few are employed exclusively to modify adjectives and adverbs, 
and very few to modify both verbs and adjectives. (15) Regarded 
in this point of view, the adverbs may be divided into three classes 



(9) What may be discovered from these examples? (10) On what has the use of ad- 
verbs an important influence ? (11) Are there some words classed as adverbs to which 
these remarks do not strictly apply ? 

(12) What classes of words are adverbs employed to modify ? (13) What class do the 
great majority of adverbs modify ? (14) State the manner In which a few of them are em- 
ployed. (15) Enumerate the three classes into which adverbs may be divided in reference 
to the kind of words which they modify. 



284 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 92. 

— 1st, modifiers of verbs; 2d, modifiers of adjectives; 3d, modi- 
fiers both of verbs and adjectives. 

[ (16) We do not make a separate class of those adverbs which are 
employed to modify other adverbs, because the words employed for 
this purpose are the same which are employed to modify adjectives, 
and because the adverb employed to modify another adverb, virtually 
modifies an adjective, viz., the adjective involved in the modified ad- 
verb. In other words, it is because of the adjective contained in the 
modified adverb, that it admits of being affected by another adverb. 
For example, That man acted very wisely. Here the adverb wisely 
is affected by another adverb, 'cery. The true nature of this modifica- 
tion, or that which is really affected by it, wiU be clearly seen when 
we expand wisely into the phrase of which it is an abbreviated ex- 
pression. That man acted is a very wise maxxee. Here we see 
that very modifies the adjective icise ; and as the two propositions are 
exactly equivalent, it is manifest that, in the first proposition, what it 
really modifies is the same adjective involved in wisely. (17) The 
fact, therefore, that an adverb modifies another adverb, resolves itself 
into the fact, that an adverb modifies an adjective. This simplifies 
our division of the uses or functions of adverbs. In the enumeration 
of these functions, we may safely overlook the fact, that they modify 
other adverbs (as this is included in the 'function of modifying ad- 
jectives), and say that they modify either verbs, including verbal 
words, or adjectives including those contained in adverbs. 

The grammarians, we think, have not sufficiently attended to the 
fact, that the adverbs generally employed to modify adjectives, are al- 
together distinct from those which modify verbs, and incapable of 
being applied to verbs; and the great mass of those applicable to 
verbs and verbal words are, on the other hand, incapable of being 
applied to adjectives.] 

(18) The adverbs employed exclusively with adjectives, are 
chiefly those which indicate intensity, or the degree, in which the 
same quality or attribute is found to exist, or conceived- to exist. 
(19) We may enumerate as examples, the words very^ too, rtiuch, 
eMremely, exceedingly, suirremely, &c. And the words used to express 



[(16) Repeat with illustration by examples the reason assigned for including adverbs 
which modify other adverbs within the class which modify adjectives. (17) Into what, in 
conclusion, does the fact that an adverb modifies an adverb resolve itself?] • 

(18) What kind of adverbs are employed exclusively with adjectives? (]9) Enumerate 



§ 92.] ADVERBS WHICH MODIFY ADJECTIVES. 285 

comparison equally^ more^ most, less, least, &c. (20) Some of these are 
found after verbs, but then they have the force of adjectives employed 
substantively, and should be treated as such in analysis. (21) 
Even the few adverbs which admit of being employed both with 
verbs and adjectives, seem generally to express a different sense 
with verbs from that which they express with adjectives. (22) We 
may illustrate this by the words as and so. These are used to 
modify both adjectives and verbs. He thinks as I think. He is as 
wise AS learned. He thinks so. He is so prudent. In these ex- 
amples it is obvious that these words as and so, employed with the 
verb think, express a manner of thinking ; but employed with the 
adjectives wise and prudent, express the degree of intensity of these 
qualities. (23) We do not maintain that as and so, themselves, 
have, as here employed, two different senses, but that the word im- 
plied with these abbreviations is different, according as they are 
employed to modify a verb or an adjective. (24) Manner or way 
is implied when they are used with a verb, and some such meaning 
as that expressed by degree when they are used with adjectives. 
(25) In a word, the adverb modifying the adjective, and the ad- 
verb modifying the verb, may be regarded as having some claim to 
be considered as distinct parts of speech, or classes of words. 

ExEECiSEs. — Form propositions containing adjectives modified by 
adverbs. 

[(26) We may recognise a distinction among adverbs similar to 
that which we have recognised among adjectives — a distinction which 
might be expected since adverbs are formed from adjectives, or imply 
the sense of adjectives of both classes. (27) As we have descriptive 
adjectives expressing inherent qualities or attributes of objects, and 
determinative adjectives expressing, not qualities of objects, but some 
relation to other objects, or some circumstance of place, number, &c., 
or, in other words, the form, or relation, in which the speaker chooses 



a few examples. (20) What is said of some of these when found after verbs? (21) What 
is said of the few adverbs which are used both with verbs and adjectives? (22) Illustrate 
by the uses of the words as and so. (23) Do we maintain that as and so have each two dif- 
ferent senses? (24) What word is implied, when they are used with a verb, and what when 
used with an adjective ? (25) Repeat what is said of the difference between these two classes 
of adverbs. 

[(26) What distinction may be recognised among adverbs ? (27) Illustrate further the 
nature of this distinction.] 



286 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 92. 

to present objects ; so we have qualifying adverbs, and adverbs ex- 
pressive of circumstances of tirne^ place^ ordei\ &c. This distinction 
may, perhaps, be traced in the adverbs employed to modify adjectives^ 
but it can be much more clearly traced, and it is of more importance 
to mark it, in reference to those adverbs which are employed to 
modify verbs.] 

(28) In reference to meaning^ we may distinguish two grand 
classes of the adverbs which modify verbs. Those of the first class 
express the manner of the action indicated by the verb, and are 
generally known by the name of adverbs of manner ; those of the 
second class express some circumstance, generally of time, place, or 
order, in reference to the assertion in the proposition in which they 
are found. This class we may venture to distinguish by the name 
of adverbs of circumstance, or circumstantial adverbs. 

(29) The grammarians usually distinguish them by the names 
of adverbs of time, of place, of order, &c. — names which we shall 
apply, as others have done, to the sub-classes, whilst we give the 
name circumstantial adverbs to them all in common. We give 
this common name to mark that they possess common properties, 
as distinguished from the adverbs of manner. 

(30) Now the adverbs of manner nearly all involve in their 
meaning the sense of a descriptive adjective, and hke descriptive 
adjectives, express an inherent qualification of the action denoted by 
the predicate which they complete. (31) For example. That boy acts 
PRUDENTLY. 'H.ei'e prudcntly involves the sense of the descriptive ad- 
jective prudent, from which it is formed, being, in fact, equivalent to 
the phrase, in a pi'udent manner, and it serves as a descriptive in- 
herent qualification of acting, as here predicated of the boy.^ 

Exercises. — Form propositions having verbs modified by ad- 
verbs of manner. 



* Tliere are a few adverbs of manner which involve the sense of a de- 
terminative, not of a descriptive adjective. We may take as examples, as 

(28) Describe the two classes into which adverbs which modify verbs are divided, and 
mention the names by which we distinguish them. 

(29) By what names do grammarians usually distinguish circumstantial adverbs, and 
how do we apply these names ? 

(30) What is always involved in the meaning of adverbs of marMier ? And in what do 
they consequently resemble descriptive adjectives? (31) Illustrate this by an example. 



§ 92.] CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERBS. 287 

(32) Circumstantial Adverbs, on the contrary, do not express 
a qualification descriptive of the action denoted by the verb, but 
express a circumstance which rather modifies the whole assertion 
than completes the part of the predicate contained in the verb ; and 



and so, when employed to modify verbs. As, then, means in the manner, or 
in the same, or a similar manner, and so, in such manner. But these words, 
whether employed with adjectives or verbs, do not express a complete 
modification, but serve as conjunctive words of reference to introduce (or di- 
rect to) the real modification, the essential part of which is expressed by the 
subjoined proposition, or abbreviated proposition, or sometimes, in the case of 
so, by a preceding proposition referred to. For illustration let us take the ex- 
ample, He thinks as I think. Here, I think, is the essential, the really descrip- 
tive part of the modification — what describes the manner in which He thinks — 
and as performs a function similar to what we shall find presently the conjunc- 
tive pronouns perform in connecting modifying propositions. The assertion in 
the example may be expanded into He thinks in the manner in which / think, 
or He thinks in which manner I think. The conjunctive word which, together 
with in the manner, we here see, are necessary to form a complete equivalent 
for what is indicated by the (so called) adverb as. We may subjoin examples 
of the use of so. This young man conducts himself so, that all his coinpanions 
esteem him==m such a manner, that all his cojupanions esteem him. Tlimt nil 
his companions esteem him, describes the manner in which the young man 
conducts himself, and so refers us to this description. Even after we have ex- 
panded the assertion in the example as above, there is, perhaps, still an 
ellipsis of another proposition. But the full expansion of such assertions is 
not necessary to our present purpose. "We may give as a second example. 
The 7nan acted so, as to deserve much praise, equivalent to The man acted in 
such a manner, viz., the manner to deserve much praise. To deserve much 
praise, is here the real description of the manner in which the man acted ; 
and the predicate acting ia really completed hj manner with this description 
attached. This infinitive form of modification is that which most commonly 
follows the word so. But so is also employed to refer to a modification ex- 
pressed in the preceding part of a discourse ; as, Biit this man could not treat . 
his friends so ; referring to some manner of treating fi-iends already de- 
scribed. 

What we have said of as and so employed with verbs will equally apply 
to theiu when employed with adjectives, since, in both uses, they indicate 
comparison, and refer for the development of the sense, which they for a 
moment represent, to another proposition, or phrase occupying the place of 
a proposition. 

(32) "What is bere said ot the circumstantial adverbs ? 



288 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 92. 

the adjective implied in these circumstantial adverbs, when one is 
impHed, is often a determinative.* 

[(33) Let us illustrate this by a fevr examples : The loy xow writes 
to Ills father ; The house stood, here. First, our friend is industrious ; 
SECOXDLY, he icrongs no man ; thirdly, he is hind to every tody. In 
these examples, it will be seen that the adverbs rtoic^ here, first, se- 
condly, thirdly, do not qualify the predicate or complete its sense, but 
modify the whole assertion. Kow in the first does not express a quality 
of icriting, as heoAitifully does, when we say. The boy writes beauti- 
fully, but a modification of the whole assertion. The boy writes to his 
father. Sere does not express a quality of standing, as gracefully, for 
example, does, Avhen we say, The man stands gracefully ; but modifies 
the whole assertion, subject and predicate taken together, The house 
stood. In other words, it modifies not standing alone, but the asserted 
standing of the house. (34) Though adverbs of this description have 
not a connection so intimate and exclusive with the verbal predicate, 
as the adverbs of manner (or what we may call descriptive adverbs), 
still they have a close connection with it, since they modify the whole 
assertion, and the force of every assertion is concentred in the 'predicaM. 
Hence, both classes of adverbs are considered by the grammarians as 
words modifying the terb. Still the distinction which we are tracing 
between adverbs modifying the 'verbal predicate directly, and those 
which affect the assertion generally, is of some importance when we 
come to a strict analysis of language as a vehicle of thought. TTe 
shall also find presently that adverbs of the latter kind — circumstantial 
adverbs — admit of an arrangement in reference to the verb different 
from that which descriptive adverbs admit. (35) TTe must not omit 



* "We say often, because we have not examined these adverbs so com- 
pletely as to venture to assert in an unqualified manner, that all which im- 
ply an adjective, imply a determinative, and not a descriptive adjective. 
Some words usually reckoned as adverbs, and which, if so considered, must 
be classed among the circumstantial adverbs, imply no adjective, but simply 
a noun and preposition. Such are, perhaps, perchayice, peradventure, and 
likely, some others. 

[(33) Illustrate by examples what is said of the circumstantial adverbs modifying the 
whole assertion, and not the verb merely. (34) What farther is admitted in reference to 
the circumstantial adverbs ? State the reasons for which the grammarians consider them 
as modifying the verb of the proposition in which they occur. 

(35) What fact is noticed in reference to the circumstantial adverbs given in the exam- 
ples above? (36) Illustrate.] 



§ 92.] ARRANGEMENT OP ADVERBS. 289 

tlie fact that all the above circumstantial adverbs either imply or con- 
tain in them a deter?ninative, not a descriptive word. (36) Thus noto 
and here imply the determinative this. Now = at this time, Here == at 
this place. First is a determinative adjective — an ordinal numeral — 
used adverbially, and secondly, thirdly, each contain a determinative, 
namely, the ordinal numerals, second and third.^ 

Arrangement of Adverbs. — (37) The adverb which modifies 
an adjective or another adverb is generally placed before the word 
which it modifies. The adverb enough is an exception ; it follows 
the adjective which it modifies ; as, He is wise enough, He is rick 
enough. 

(38) The descriptive adverb is most generally placed after the 
verb which it modifies ; as, This man acted wisely. (39) But the 
circumstantial adverb admits of much greater freedom of arrange- 
ment. 

[ (40) This was to be expected from what we have said of the func- 
tion of this species of adverb. Since it modifies the whole assertion 
and not the predicate in particular, it is not necessary that it should 
accompany the verb so closely as the adverb of manner, which has 
for its function to describe the action expressed by the verb. Exam- 
ple : ISTow, the loy studies ; The lay now studies ; The loy studies now 
in earnest, or studies in earnest now. Here the. adverb now is arranged 
in three different manners. But the writer of delicate taste will not 
employ these three forms of expression indifterently. In the first, the 
adverb occupying the more emphatic place has peculiar force. It im- 
plies a contrast in reference to the occupation of the boy. Now he 
studies, though formerly he did not. In the second, it implies his pre- 
sent occupation to the exclusion for the time of other pursuits. In 
the third form a contrast is implied between his present and his former 
manner of studying. The force of noio applies to the assertion as mod- 
ified by the words in earnest. (41) Circumstantial adverbs often take 
the first place in the proposition, especially adverbs of time, as always, 
sometimes, often, never ; and adverbs of order, as, Jirst, secondly, &c. 

(3T) Where is the adverb which modifies an adjective or an adverb placed ? Mention 
the exception. 

(3S) What is said of the arrangement of the descriptive adverb, or adverb of manner ? 
(39) What is said of the arrangement of the circumstantial adverb ? 

[(40) What reason for expecting gi-eater freedom in the arrangement of this species of 
modification ? Illustrate by an example. Show how the sense is affected by a change of 
the arrangement. 

(41) What place do circumstantial adverbs often take in the proposition ? 

19 



290 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 92. 

The same is true of the equivalent noun and preposition modifications ; 
at all times, at no time, in the first place, in the second place, &c. (42) 
When never is placed first, the subject and verb are generally trans- 
posed ; as,' " ISTever iDas a man so used." 

The circumstantial adverb, especially when thus placed before the 
verb, is also, like the noun and preposition so placed, often separated 
by interpunction from the other parts of the proposition, by a comma 
after, if it comes first in order, by a comma both before and after, 
when part of the proposition precedes and part follows it. (See ap- 
pendix on punctuation.) 

(43) As a general rule in reference to the arrangement of adverbs, 
those adverbs which modify a particular word in a proposition must 
be so placed, in order to secure perspicuity, that the reader cannot 
mistake the word which they are intended to modify. (44) The word 
only is peculiarly subject to be misplaced, as, for instance, in the oft- 
quoted and oft censured passage in one of the papers of Addison : " By 
greatness T do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the 
largeness of a whole view, considered as one entire piece." Here 
" only,''"' to avoid obscurity, should have followed " oljecty 

(45) Adverbs, when employed to connect propositions, are neces- 
sarily placed in the beginning of the modifying proposition which they 
unite to the principal proposition. Such adverbs we shall notice 
hereafter under the name of ConjunctiTie Adverds, when we come to 
treat of conjunctions. Adverbs used in interrogation are also placed 
first in the interrogative proposition. 

We may here enumerate and classify some of the principal circum- 
stantial advei^s. It would be useless to attempt to enumerate the 
adverbs of manner, or descriptive adverbs, such is their multitude ; 
and they seem to need no classification. 

Among the circumstantial adverbs we enumerate 

(46) I. Adverbs op Place. 

1. In a place. Here, there, where. 

2. To a place. Hither, thither, whither."^ 



* See Ifote at the end of this section. 



(42) What inversion usually happens when a proposition commences with the adverb 
Tiever f What is said of interpunction ? 

(43) Eepeat the general rule ia reference to the arrangement of adverbs. (44) WTiat 
adverb is peculiarly subject to be misplaced, and therefore claims peculiar care ? 

(45) What is said of the place of conjunctive adverbs, and interrogative adverbs ? 

(46) Eepeat the enumeration of the adverbs of place. 



§ 92.] CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERBS. 291 



3. Towards a place. Hitherward, thitherward, whitherward. 

4. From a place. Hence, thence, whence. 

(47) II. Adverbs of Time. 

1. Present time. Now, instantly, &c. 

2. Past time. Heretofore, akeady, hitherto, lately, &;c. 

8. Future time. Afterwards, hereafter, presently, e7er, never. 

4. Definite repetition. Once, twice, thrice, again, &c. 

5. Indefinite repetition. Often, seldom, frequently. 

(48) III. Adverbs of Order. 
First, secondly, thirdly, &c. 

(49) "We might add interrogative adverbs as a class. Some of 
these are circumstantial, as, Wliy^ wherefore., wlien^ where ; some ex- 
press manner interrogatively as hotc=in what manner. 

(50) We may here remark that the verb to &e, and some other 
neuter verbs expressive of posture or a state of leing^ such as stand., 
sit^ lie, &c., are rarely modified by adverbs of manner. These same 
verbs are most frequently modified by adjectives ; they freely admit 
the modification of circumstantial adverbs, and all, except to be, take 
the modification of some few adverbs of manner. Thus we say, to 
stand or to sit gracefully ; but when we wish to say that a man, for 
instance, stands or sits in an erect or upright manner, we have re- 
course to the adjective modification, and say, The man stands erect, 
The man sits erect. 

(51) The verb to de, scarcely, so far as we recollect, admits the 
modification of an adverb of manner, or descriptive adverb. The ex- 
pression, formed by this verb with the word well, in such propositions 
as B^e is well, may seem an exception. But well here, we think, is 
plainly an adjective; just as umcell and sicJc are in the propositions, 
ffe is unwell, Re is sich.l 

Exercises I., II., &c. — Form propositions containing examples, 1st 
of adverbs of place ; 2d, adverbs of time ; 3d, adverbs of order, &c. 

]^OTE. — It has become so common to employ here, there, where, instead of 
hither, thither, whither, when we express motion to a place, that it would 
scarcely be safe to call such expressions as Come here, Go there. Where are 



(47) The adverbs of time. (48) The adverbs of order. 

(49) Repeat the remark about the interrogative adverbs, 

(50) Repeat the remark about the verb to he and some other neuter verbs in reference 
to the adverbial modification, (51) Does the verb to de take adverbs of manner as modifi- 
cation,] 



292 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 93. 

you going ? ungrammatical. The proper old forms of expression, Cotne 
hither. Go thither, V/hither are you goi7ig ? seem likely to become altogether 
obsolete, especially in colloquial discourse. It is a misfortune to lose the use- 
ful distinction which the employment of hither, thither, &c., affords us; but 
in matters of language mankind in our day seem to regard their ears more 
than their intellect — sound more than sense ; and the ears decide the ques- 
tion against these rough northern terminations in ther. 

Hence, means from this place ; Thence, from that place, &c., without the 
employment of a preposition. Most grammarians declare against From 
hence, From whence, &e., as improper forms of expression. Yet these forms 
are found in our best authors, and even in the pages of those who denounce 
them as ungrammatical. In colloquial discourse, they are constantly used. 
There is not the same apology for this abuse as for that mentioned above. 
From, hence is no improvement as regards sound, compared with hence. And 
the expression introduces a grammatical anomaly — an adverb preceded by a 
preposition. The abuse has arisen from regarding hence as a noun meaning 
this place. Perhaps it really is a noun with something like a case ending, im- 
plying the same sense as the preposition yVom, and which, like other cases, 
has been unable to maintain itself in the conflict with the noicn and preposi- 
tion form of modification. Hence we come to employ /rom before hence, as 
before other nouns, not regarding the fact that its form already implies the 
force oifrom. The resistance to this abuse has not yet been relinquished by 
those who aim at correctness in writing and speaking, and we think should 
not be relinquished. 

The reader will please observe the analogical formation of the above 
adverbs of place — a beauty not often met in the English of the present 
day. This uniformity will be more clearly seen under the following ar- 
rangement. 

That place. What place ? 

There, Where ? 

Thence, Whence? 

Thither, Whither? 

Thitherward, Whitherward ? 

§ 93. Derivation and Formation of Adverbs. — (1) Some 
of the adverbs may be regarded as primitive words, since they are 
always employed in the present use of the language as adverbs, and 
are not derived from any other known word. These, however, form 
but a small proportion of this very extensive class of words, and 
even these were probably at an earlier date nouns or adjectives. 
We give as examples, Here, there, then, now. 

§ 93. (1) What is said of primitive adverbs ? Give examples. 





This place. 


In. 


Here, 


From. 


Hence, 


To. 


Hither, 


Towards. 


Hitherward, 



§ 93.] FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 293 

(2) A large proportion of our adverbs of manner are formed 
from adjectives, by adding the termination ly ; as, from virtuous is 
formed the adverb virtuously ; from vAse^ wisely^ &c. (3) An ad- 
verb of this sort may be accounted an abbreviated method of ex- 
pressing the adjective which it involves, together with the word 
manner, preceded by the preposition in. Thus, Virtuously=In a 
virtuous manner, Wisely=In a wise manner, &c. 

(4) The adverbs of order are also formed by adding ly to the 
several ordinal numbers, second, third, fourth, &c. Adverbs, sec- 
ondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. Firstly has also been sometimes used, 
but instead of this form we now employ first, both as ordinal ad- 
jective and adverb of order. Secondly, thirdly, &c., are equivalent 
to In the second place. In the third place, &c. 

[(5) The termination ly has come to us from the Anglo-Saxon lice, 
from which has descended our word lihe. (6) It may be observed here 
that the Anglo-Saxons formed many of their adjectives by adding the 
termination lie to nouns; and adverbs by adding ?ice to adjectives. 
(Y) In our language the distinction between lie and lice has been lost, 
and both are represented by ly. (8) For example, from the nouns 
God, man, ghost, king, world, &c., we form the adjectives godly, manly, 
ghostly, Tcingly, worldly, &c. And from the adjectives just, gracious, 
generous, &c., the adverbs justly, graciously, generously, &c. ; com- 
pletely confounding the terminations expressive of the adjective and 
the adverbial meanings. We find, however, little difficulty in distin- 
guishing these classes of words by their functions. (9) We may also 
generally distinguish the adverb by the fact that it is formed from an 
adjective; though a few words formed from nouns by the addition of 
ly, are employed both as adjectives and adverbs; as daily, weeMy, 
monthly, yearly, &c. These may be classed with adjectives adterMallj 
employed. (10) From the adjective good we have formed goodly em- 
ployed as an adjective, and not as an adverb,] 

(11) There are some irregularities in the formation of these adverbs 

(2) How are many of the adverbs of manner formed ? Examples. (3) How may such 
adverbs be considered ? Example. 

(4) What is said of the formation of adverbs of order? Examples. 

[(5) Repeat what is said of the origin of the termination ly. (6) What is said of the man- 
ner in which some adjectives and adverbs were formed in Anglo-Saxon? (7) Has the dis- 
tinction observed in Anglo-Saxon been retained in English ? (8) Illustrate by examples. 
(9) How can we usually distinguish an adjective ending in l§ from an adverb having the 
same termination ? (10) Mention an exception.] 

(11) Repeat what is said of the irregularity in the formation of adverbs from adjectives 



294 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 93. 

in ly. From adjectives ending in le^ adverbs are formed by omitting 
the final e and adding y. Thus from able^ is formed ctbly^ from simple^ 
simjyly^ &c. These may be regarded as contracted and softened forms, 
for the more unconth words, ablely^ simplely^ &c. (12) "When the 
adjective ends in e, the e is often omitted; as, due^ duly^ true^ truly. 
Here the e is preceded by a vowel. When it is preceded by a conso- 
nant, it is generally retained ; as, sole^ solely., servile., servilely.^ &c., but 
icTiole., makes icJiolly. "When the adjective ends in ZZ, one I is omitted 
in the adverb; &'=,., full., fully .^ &c. But these are matters of spelling 
rather than of grammar. 

Exercises. — Give examples of adverbs formed from adjectives. 
Adjectives from nouns. 

(13) We may here notice that many words recognised as adverbs, 
are compounded of two or more words, which, separately taken, form 
some one of the species of modifications already treated. We have 
examples in Ther6fore=for this ; Where-ioith =-^ with which; In-deed., 
Neter-the-less = nemr in the less degree, degree or some such word be- 
ing implied. In therefore and wherefore., thestg, or some such noun is 
also implied. 

(14) Many words compounded with the abbreviated preposition a 
have been classed by the grammarians among the adverljs ; such as, 
ohed., aloft., ashore., aground., &c. These words, we think, are seldom, 
if ever, used as adverbs. If we do not analyze them as noun and 
preposition w.odifications., but treat them as single words, they are not 
adverls., but adjectives employed, generally, as complementary of neuter 
verds.* (15) We may illustrate this by the example, S^e lies abed. 



* All words Hke these which modify verbs have been thrown by the 
grammarians into the class of adverbs, because they have not adverted to 
the fact that many verbs are modified by adjectives, but consider all single 
words with the exception of objective nouns as adverbs when they are em- 
ployed to modify verbs. It will be seen from what we have already said 
that this view cannot be maintained ; that on the contrary there are several 
verbs which rarely admit an adverbial modification, but freely take a com- 
plementary adjective. The verb to he is an example, and most verbs which 
express the state or posture of the subject; as, to stand, to lie, to sit, &q. 

in le, and give examples. (12) Repeat remarks as to those formed from adjectives ending 
in e preceded by a vowel, and in e preceded by a consonant. Give the examples. 

(13) Repeat what is said of adverbs formed of -words which separately taken constitute 
one of the modifications already considered. Illustrate by examples. 

(14) What is said of certain words formed with the preposition a ? Give examples 
(15) Illustrate the assertion that these compounds are not adverbs, using for this purpose as 
an example, He lies abed. 



§ 93.] ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 295 

Here we must either say that abed is equivalent to on bed — noun and 
preposition modification — or that it is an adjective compounded of these 
words. Surely abed^ taken as a single word, is as much an adjective^ 
when we say, He lies abed^ or He is abed^ Rsfiat is an adjective, when 
we say, He liesfiat^ or The roof is fiat. The same reasoning will apply 
to asleep.^ aloft^ asliore., (fee, in the propositions He is asleep^ or He lies 
asleep ; The ship is ashore^ or lies ashore ; The bird rises aloft., or sings 
aloft., &c. 

(16) Many adjectives are employed in our language adverbially — 
generally as adverbs of manner — some noun being suppressed which 
the mind of the hearer is expected to supply. "We may give as ex- 
amples of adjectives often so employed the words better., best., worse., 
worst ; as, He acted better., best., worse., worst — expressions equivalent 
to He acted in a better manner., in the best manner., &;c. (17) The em- 
ployment of adjectives as adverbs is more common in some languages 
than it is in ours. In German, for instance, "all adjectives are em- 
ployed as adverbs of manner, without assuming any distinctive termi- 
nation like the English Z^." (Becker's Germ. Gram, for the English, p. 
162, Frank. 1845.) 

(18) It often happens that an adjective preceded by a preposition 
is used adverbially. Examples : In vain=In a vain manner ; In short 
^=In a short way., or manner ; In general=In a general way., or man- 
ner. In some cases the ellipsis cannot be so easily supplied. For ex- 
ample, at least., at most., at all., &c. In such expressions a whole 
proposition is sometimes left to be supplied by the hearer or reader ; 
and what proposition, or what words, we must ascertain in each par- 
ticular case from the connection of the discourse. The easiest (though 
certainly not the most satisfactory) way of treating such abbreviated 
expressions is to call them, as the grammarians generally have done, 
adverbial phrases. 

Exercises. — Propositions containing what are caUed adverbial 
phrases ; always supply the noun in analysis. 

(19) It may be observed, once for all, that it is a lazy and unphilo- 
sophical practice to treat every word, which expresses a circumstance 
modifying the predicate of a proposition, and which happens to be 
somewhat diflScult to analyze fully and correctly, as an adverb, or, if 
more than one word, as an adverbial phrase. (20) The proper, the only 

(16) What is said of adjectives emploj^^ed in our language as adverbs of manner ? Illus- 
trate by examples. (17) What is said of the practice in other languages of employing the 
unchanged adjective as an adverb ? 

(18) Repeat what is said of (the so-called) ac^er&iaZ phrase.?, illustrating by examples. 

(19) Describe a practice characterized as lazy and unphilosophical (20) What is repre- 



296 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 93. 

rational method of analysis, is to treat as an adverb no expression 
which can be readily brought under any of the other classes of modi- 
fications. (21) Adverbs are only contracted or abbreviated forms 
equivalent to other modifications, and every one, in order to show 
that he thoroughly understands the analysis of language, must be able 
to exhibit in every case the expression to which the adverb is equiva- 
lent, or which it represents. (22) To call any expression an adverb^ or 
an adverlial phrase^ which admits of being directly brought under one 
of the other forms of modification, is therefore wholly unwarrantable 
and improper. 

(23) In consistency with these remarks we cannot admit that such 
words as yesterday^ to-day^ to-niglit^ to-morrow^ belong to the class of 
adverbs. Yesterday is a compound noun formed by the union of an 
adjective, now obsolete (save in composition), with the noun day. 
The same observation applies to the expressions to-day^ to-night^ to- 
morrow. "Whatever may have given origin to the use of the particle 
to in this manner before the words dciy.^ nighty &c., this particle, as 
here used, is now manifestly equivalent to the determinative this. 
Compare, I will go to-day., and I will go this week. Such expressions 
we analyze as nouns — nouns performing the function of the accusa- 
tive of time. (See § 84.) 

(24) There are several words commonly classed among the ad- 
verbs which do not come, as it seems to us, within any definition 
which has been given of this species of words. One of these is the 
negative particle s^ox. This can scarcely, with propriety, be called a 
modifying word. Whether we consider it as afiecting, exclusively, the 
assertive force of the verb, or as affecting the predicate (including the 
part of the predicate contained in the verb), it cannot, in strict pro- 
priety of language, be said to modify that which it serves rather com- 
pletely to reverse or exclude. We prefer to call it by a name peculiar 
to itself, the negative particle. 

]S"oTE. — It is a question among logicians, whether the negative particle in 
all cases affects the copida ? whether, consequently, we are to admit two 
forms of the copula, viz., the affirmative form, employed in what are called 
affirmative propositions, and the negative form in negative propositions ? or, 



sented as the proper and rational method of analysis ? (21) What are adverbs here said to 
be, and what should we be able to exhibit in analysis when an adverb occurs? (22) What 
mode of analysis is said to be unwarrantable and improper ? 

(23) Enumerate some forms of expression commonly called adverbs of time, and give 
the reasons for excluding them from this class. 

(24) Eepeat the substance of what is said in reference to the word not. 



§ 93.] THE NEGATIVE PARTICLE, NOT. 29*7 

whether the negative particle may not, at least in some cases, be considered 
as affecting the predicate ? Now, if we refer to what most of the followers 
of Aristotle (though not Aristotle himself) have considered as the primary 
form of propositions, and to Avhich they attempt to reduce all propositions ; 
that is, those which have some tense of the verb to he, for their assertive 
word, accompanied by a complementary adjective, we agree with those 
who maintain that the negative always affects the verb is, which the lo- 
gicians have hitherto regarded (we think, improperly) as the naked copula, 
and that it never affects the adjective alone which they have recognised as 
forming the complete predicate. But when we distinguish (as we have felt 
compelled by the results of the investigation described in another part of 
this treatise to do) in the verb to be, as in other verbs, the predicate part 
of the word from the indication of assertion, it may probably lead to an im- 
portant modification of the manner in which logicians commonly present 
this subject. Though in such a proposition as The steward is not faithful, 
the negative not cannot be regarded with propriety, we believe, as affecting 
only the adjective faithful, yet it may be that it affects, not the assertive 
force of the verb is, but that part of the predicate contained in this verb. 
"We are inclined to think, that it is exactly this which the negative in all 
cases affects ; and if it affects what we have recognised as the leading part 
of the predicate, it really, through this, affects the entire predicate, though 
not directly or exclusively that which logicians have generally regarded as 
the predicate of propositions of this form. Thus, in the proposition. The 
steward is not faithful, though we agree with those who deny that it is logi- 
cally correct to say, that ^ot faithful is asserted of the steward, yet we think 
it may not be incorrect to say, that not being faithful is asserted of him. 

It will be seen that we suspect both parties to this question — those who 
regard the negative as affecting what they call the predicate, and those who 
regard it as affecting the copula alone — to be in error ; and that they have 
been led into error by adopting what we cannot but consider an incorrect an- 
alysis of propositions. In opposition to both, we expect that it will be found 
that the negative affects the real predicate — the whole predicate, according 
to our analysis, which finds in propositions of the above form the leading 
part of the predicate in what has been hitherto considered the mere copula. 

"We do not, however, feel prepared to assert any thing very positively 
on this point. Our examination of the bearing of the views we have 
adopted in reference to the copula, on the distinction between the affirma- 
tive and negative proposition, has not been suflficiently extensive and exact 
to satisfy our own mind completely, or entitle us to speak more decidedly 
on this subject. We leave the matter to the care of the logicians. If our 
analysis of propositions shall be found correct, and should be adopted, we 
think it must lead to some modification— we hope to a simplification— of the 
treatment of negative propositions. 



298 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 93. 

(25) The words yes and no are commonly, but we think very 
improperly, classed with the adverbs. These words are not modify- 
ing words ; they are never applied either to verb or adjective for this 
purpose. Neither do they belong to any class of words hitherto exam- 
ined by us. (26) Each of them is, in fact, equivalent to a whole propo- 
sition. Yes, employed in answer to an interrogative proposition, is 
equivalent to that proposition asserted affirmatively ; and no em- 
ployed in the same way is equivalent to the interrogative proposi- 
tion asserted negoAively. For example. Is your brother at home ? 
Ans. Yes, equivalent to My brother is at home ; Ans. No, equiva- 
lent to My brother is not at home. We may distinguish these two 
words by calling them The Responsive Particles.* 

(27) Surely^ certainly^ assuredly^ &c., are sometimes employed in 
answer to a question. These may be regarded as elliptical expressions, 
standing for propositions of which the suppressed parts are to be sup- 
plied from the preceding discourse. For example, Will you oblige me 
by aslcing that favor for me from your friend f Answer, Certainly^ 
equivalent to I will certainly oblige you by doing so ^ ov I will certainly 
do so. 

(28) When certainly ., surely., &c., occur as answers to a question, in 
attempting an analysis, we must first supply the words suppressed, and 
then their function in the completed proposition will appear manifest. 
(29) But when we meet with yes and no., we have simply to call them 
responsive particles, or signs of assent and denial. Since they are 
equivalent to whole propositions, they do not come within the range 
of grammatical analysis. Whenever a judgment of the mind is ex- 
pressed by a single simple sign, as in this case, there is no room for the 
introduction of analysis. The grammarian's business is primarily with 
the proposition (which has been very properly called the " unit of 
speech," as judgment is the unit of thought ; see N". Brit. Eev., No. 
27, art. 2), and with this only when it consists of separable parts. 
If propositions were not made up of separable signs, grammar, as we 
have already said, would be a very different thing from what it is. 



■^ These remarks do not apply to the adjective no. 



(25) Is it proper to class yes and no with tlie adverbs? Are they modifying words ? 
(26) What is each of these words in fact equivalent to ? Illustrate this fact by examples. 

(27) Eepeat what is said in reference to the words surely, certainly, etc. 

(28) How are we to act when these words occur in analysis ? (29) How when yes and 
no occur ? 



§ 93.] DOUBLE NEGATIVES. " 299 

(30) In reference to the use of the negative not, the learner will 
remember that in what is now recognised as the correct usage of our 
language, this word always reverses the sense of the proposition in which 
it is employed ; or, in other words, a proposition where the negative is 
added is always contrary to the same proposition without the negative. 
(31) This fact is to be carefully regarded in those cases in which the 
negative is employed in a proposition having negative words (espe- 
cially words compounded with the negative ?io, or the negative 
particles un and in) among the modifications of its predicate. (32) 
Thus : This man is not iwfuUiMe, is the reverse of This man is m- 
fallible ; This man is not vulearned, is the reverse of This man is 
VNlearned. (33) The rule commonly given in reference to two nega- 
tives occurring in the same proposition is perhaps expressed with too 
little precision. It is this : " Two negatives destroy one another," or, 
"■ Two negatives make an affirmative." This would imply that such 
propositions as The steward is not unfaithful, and The steward is faith- 
ful ; The man is not unwise^ and The man is wise^ &c., are completely 
equivalent, which we think is not the case. In the first forms there 
is simply a negation of unfaithful and umoise^ not an affirmation of 
faitliful and wise. 

(34) We have violations of this rule in the following expressions, 
common among the uneducated: I haven'' t got nothing^ IhavenH done 
nothing^ I haven'' t seen nobody.^ &o.* 

(35) We have already, in treating of compound tenses, indicated 
the place which the negative usually takes when employed with verbs, 



* In some langviages two negatives are employed to strengthen negation. 
Double negatives often occur in the Greek language to express negation more 
emphatically. They were also used in Anglo-Saxon, and in old English by 
the most respectable authors, as late even as the times of Shakspeare. 
Hence the origin of the usage of the uneducated above noticed, which, 
though now called vulgar, is merely an adherence to the ancient idiom, whilst 
the educated have adopted the Latin usage. In this case certainly the usage 
borrowed from the Latin appears to us a decided improvement. It is at 
once more favorable to perspicuity, and more accordant with the general 
analogies of language. 

(30) State the remark in reference to the use of the negative not. (31) In what cases is 
the fact mentioned about the negative to be especially regarded ? (32) Gi\e examples. (33) 
Kepeat the rule commonly given about double negatives, and the remarks in reference to it. 

(34) Mention the cases in which this rule is chiefly violated. 

(35) What is said of the arrangement of the negative when used with verbs ? When 
used with infinitives and nouns ? 



300 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 94. 

viz. : after the verb ; i. e. after the auxiliary, for it is chiefly used with 
compound tenses ; when used with simple tenses the order is the same : 
NOT follows the mrh. On the contrary, not, when employed as it 
sometimes is, with infinitives or other nouns, takes precedence. For 
example : ^'•Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note," &c. (Here 
observe not takes precedence of the noun and its complements.) Not 
to discountenance vice is to favor it. 

§ 94. We next proceed to consider the modifications which are 
applied to adjectives and to adverbs. For these modifying words are 
themselves afiected by modifications in order to express the products 
of thought with greater accuracy and nicer discrimination. 

(1) We have thought it best to consider these two classes of 
words together in reference to the modifications by which they are 
affected, because the few modifications of which the adverbs are sus- 
ceptible are also common to adjectives, and, especially, because 
the adverbs are susceptible of these modifications in consequence of 
their near relation to adjectives — in fact, as a consequence either 
of their possessing a common form with the adjective, being ac/yec- 
tives used adverbially, as the grammarians say, or of their involving 
an adjective in their meaning, and generally also as the radical con- 
stituent of their form. 

(2) As regards form, the modifications applied to adjectives, like 
those applied to nouns and verbs, are of two kinds ; those which 
are effected by inflections, that is, by a termination added to the 
adjective, and those which are effected by the employment of sepa- 
rate words. 

(3) The only inflection of which English adjectives are suscepti- 
ble is that employed where we have occasion to express that a quahty 
exists in one object compared with another object or objects in a 
higher degree of intensity.* (4) Grammarians have called this 



* English adjectives, unlike those of many other languages, have no 
variation to indicate number, case, or gender, with the exception of the two 

t 34. (1) What reason is given for considering the modifications of adjectives and ad- 
Ycrbs together ? 

(2) How many kinds of modifications are applied to adjectives ? 

(3) Describe the only purpose for which an inflection is attached to English adjectives. 
(4) What name have grammarians given to this change of the adjective ? (5) "What kind of 
adjectives are susceptible of comparison ? (6) Illustrate by an example. 



§ 94.] COMPAEISON OF ADJECTIVES. 301 

inflection comparison of adjectives, because when the inflected forms 
are used there is generally a comparison expressed or implied between 
the objects to which the qualities indicated by the adjectives are 
attributed. (5) It is only such adjectives as express qualities mani- 
fested in different degrees of intensity — generally descriptive adjec- 
tives — which are susceptible of comparison. (6) For example, the 
quality expressed by the adjective cold is manifested in different 



determinative adjectives, this and that, v/hich have for plural forms, these 
and those. The word one has sometimes a plural form, and even a possessive 
case; as, "I have commanded my sanctified ones, I have also called my 
mighty ones." (Is. xiii. 3.) "The great ones of the earth;" one's country/ 
and one's friends are dear to every one. This word, however, is not prop- 
erly an adjective. It has all the characteristics of a noun, or pronoun, like 
on in French, and man in German and Anglo-Saxon, with which it has 
affinity in derivation, as well as in meaning, rather than with the numeral 
one. 

The word other when used with a noun has no plural form ; for example : 
OinER men have made the same mistake. But, when employed alone sub- 
Btantively, it has a regular plural form ; as. Others have made the same mis- 
take. The singular form of this word is, we believe, never used substantively, 
but itfi^ compound another serves as a singular substantive form, and has a 
regular possessive case; example, "The tender for awo^Aer's pain." Others 
plural has a possessive, vjz. : othexs. These words used substantively may 
be thus arranged as a single declension : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative, Another, Others. 

Genitive, Another's, Others'. 

The young student can scarcely conceive the amount of labor saved to 
him by the absence of all inflection in the adjectives of our language. In 
learning other languages, he must be able to determine the number, case, 
gender, of ihe noun, in order to ascertain the form of the adjective which he 
is to employ with it. To ascertain in most languages the gender to which 
every noun belongs is a long and laborious task. 

Yet it must not be supposed that the inflection of adjectives, to make 
them correspond to the number, case, gender of the noun which they modify, 
is a mere useless incumbrance, occasioning toil to no purpose to those who 
vise languages possessing this peculiarity. On the contrary, it affords many 
facilities for abbreviating speech, without prejudice to perspicuity, and in the 
ancient languages, where this kind of inflection is carried to the greatest 
extent, it affords such liberty of arrangement as enables an ingenious writer 
to secure more easily both force and harmony in the expression of his 



302 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 94. 

degrees of intensity ; one cold day is more intensely cold than 
another. This higher intensity we express briefly by adding to the 
adjective the termination er. This day, we say, is colder than 
yesterday. Again, we may wish to assert of a number of days 
(more than two) that some one was the most intensely cold. This 
we do by applying to the adjective cold the termination est, and 
using it with this inflection to complete the noun day. Thus, This 
is the coldest day of the week ; The day before yesterday was 
COLD, yesterday was colder, hut this day is the coldest q/" the three. 
Here we have the quality cold expressed in three different degrees 
of intensity, each distinguished by a different form of the adjective, 
Cold, colder, coldest. 

(V) These forms, including the original adjective, are called the 
th7'ee degrees of comparison. Grammarians have given each a dis- 
tinct name. (8) The original adjective they have named the positive 
degree, the form in er the comparative, and the form in est the su- 
perlative degree. 

(9) These modifications of the form of the adjective are gene- 
rally, as in the case of the word cold, eflfected by adding the sylla- 
ble ER to the positive (or original form of the adjective) for the com- 
parative degree, and the syllable est for the superlative. (10) When 
in the written language the adjective* happens to end in e mute, r 
alone is added to form the comparative and st to form the superla- 
tive ; as, sure, surer, surest. (11) In the spoken language, the 
sounds represented by er and est are always added to the original 
adjective as it is at present pronounced. In other words, a syllable 
is always added to the adjective to form the comparative and super- 
lative degrees. 



thoughts, StiU we cannot hope to attain these advantages, and to nee with 
correctness the languages which possess them, without submitting to much 
repulsive labor. 



(7) What name have grammarians given to these forms intended to express qualities in 
different degrees of intensity? (8) What names have been given to each of these distinct 
forms of tlie adjective? 

(9) How are the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives formed ? (10) How are they 
formed in the written language when the adjective ends iu e mute ? (11) What SQuads or 
syllables are always added in the spoken language ? 



§ 94.] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. . 303 

(12) We may observe here that we have another way in Eng- 
lish of expressing comparison, namely, employing the adverbs more 
and most before the adjective to express the comparative and suj^er- 
lative degrees respectively ; as, amiable, more amiable, most amiable. 
This comes under the adverbial modification of the adjective already 
considered. 

(13) Words consisting of one syllable are usually compared (as 
the grammarians call it) by adding to them the syllables er and est, 
by which they become words of two syllables. (14) A few words 
of two syllables — especially those which end in an accented syl- 
lable — are sometimes compared in the same way ; as, severe, severer, 
severest ; divine, diviner, divinest. 

(15) With all adjectives of more than two syllables, and with 
most adjectives containing two syllables, we employ more and fnost 
for the purpose of expressing a higher degree of intensity. (16) 
Mo7'e and most may be employed for this purpose with all adjec- 
tives which admit of comparison, and are to be employed whenever 
the use of the inflected form would produce any harshness of sound. 
(lY) But except where harshness is to be avoided or some rhetorical 
purpose to be served, the inflected form of monosyllables is generally 
preferred as more brief and more forcible. 

(18) When we wish to express the existence of a quality in an 
object in a high degree without comparison — without reference to 
the degree in which other objects possess the same quality — we gene- 
rally employ the adverb very or raore than usually, &c. ; as, A very 
high mountain. (19) Sometimes we express the same thing, or 
nearly the same thing, by the superlative form ; as. The greatest 
difficulties are overcome by perseverance. This differs little from 
VERY GREAT difficulties are overcome, &c. It is more spirited, but 



(12) Describe another way of expressing comparison in English. 

(13) How are words of one syllable nsnally compared f 

(14) Are any words of two syllables compared in the same way ? If any, what kind of 
words ? 

(15) "With what classes of adjectives are more and most always employed for the pur- 
pose of expressing increased intensity ? ,(16) When are these words to be employed with 
adjectives e\'en of one sj^llable for the same purpose ? (17) In what sort of words, and with 
what exceptions, is the inflected form preferred ? 

(18) How do we express intensity without direct comparison ? (19) Is the same thing 
Bometimes done by means of the superlative inflection ? Illustrate by an example. 



304 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 94. 

still implies little, if any comparison.'^ (20) Grammarians have called 
such expressions as, A very higji mountain the superlative absolute^ 
while the form employed when reference is expressed or implied to 
other objects possessing the same quality, is called the superlative 
relative. 

(21) Descending compai'ison., or diminution of the intensity of 
a quality expressed by an adjective is denoted by the adverbs less 
and least ; as, less studious^ least studious ; or sometimes hj adding 
to the adjective the termination ish ; as, whitish, blackish, &c. 

(22) The comparison of equality is always expressed by means 
of additional words ; as, That man is as learned as his brother. 
(23) In this, and, indeed, in every case of comparison formally stated, 
there is a modifying p)rop)osition employed — a sj)ecies of complement 
or modification which remains to be treated hereafter. 



* Perhaps the use of the superlative in this way in our language may be 
considered as merely exaggeration, or a rhetorical contrivance adopted for 
the purpose of imparting force and sprightliness to style. To represent any 
object as possessing an attribute in the highest degree of all the objects of 
its class is more forcible than to represent it as simply possessing it in a very 
high degree. The superlative absolute is tame when compared with the other 
form. It is only however when the adjective is used attributively, or as the 
complement of a noun, that the superlative comparative can be thus substi- 
tuted in English for the superlative absolute. We do not, as far as we know, 
employ the superlative comparative, (that is, the form made with st or its 
equivalent — the adjective modified by the adverb onost,) a.?, complementary of 
the verb excej^t when we intend comparison. 

In some languages the same form is very frequently used to express both 
the superlative comparative and the superlative absolute ; and that when the ad- 
jective serves to complete a verb as well as when it completes a noun. Thus 
in Latin, mons altissimus means, when reference is made to other mountains, 
the highest mountain ; or, when no such reference is intended, a very high 
mountain. Mons est altissimus may also be used to assert that a mountain 
is very high. Even the comparative form is used, though less frequently, 
in the same way ; as, " Si tibi gticBdam videbuntur obscuriora." '■'Obscuriora^^ 
here means obscure beyond the ordinary degree — more than commonly 
obscure. 

(20) By what name have grammarians distinguished this from direct comparison ? 

(21) How is descending comparison, or diminution of intensity expressed ? Give ex- 



(22) What is said of the comparison of equality? (23) What is necessary in all 
when a comparison is formally stated ? 



§ 94.] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 305 

(24) A few cases occur in which the different degrees of the same 
quality are represented by words entirely distinct in form ; and a few 
other cases occur in which there is some irregularity in the formation 
of the comparative and superlative. The chief ii-regularities of both 
kinds are exhibited in the following table. 

(25) Table of Ieeegttlae Compaeison. 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good Better Best. 

Bad, evil, or ill Worse Worst. 

Little Less Least. 

More Most. 



Much 
Many 

Near 
Late 
Old 
Far 



] 



N-earei (Nearest. 

J>earei \:^ext. 



^La 
(La 

\ 
\ 



Later Latest. 

Latter Last. 

Older Oldest. 

Elder Eldest. 

Farther Farthest. 

Further Furthest. 



(26) Explanation. — Much is used in speaking of quantity^ many.^ 
in speaking of number ; nearest is used in reference to place^ next, in 
reference to tirtie ; the forms later and latest are used in speaking of 
time.^ latter and last.^ in speaking of order; older and oldest are the 
forms generally employed at present, elder and eldest are more ancient 
forms, and are noiv less frequently employed. / Further and furthest 
are perhaps formed from, fore, which we have in the word foremost, and 
not from /a?'. The meanings, as well as the derivation, of these forms 
were likely once diWerent— further meaning more in front ; farther, 
more distant. But in modern usage, farther, on account of its softer 
sound, has nearly superseded the harsher word, /tir^y^er, the difference 
of their signification not being so great as to preclude this substitution.* 



* It is a curious fact that in the best known ancient and modern lan- 
guages the adjectives irregular in comparison are usually words of similar 
signification. Thus the words which denote the same qualities with our 



(24) Eepeat the remark in reference to irregular comparison. 

(25) Eepeat the table of irregular forms. 

(26) Eepeat the remarks in explanation of the use of the irregular forms. 



306 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 94. 

[(27) There is a class of superlatives ending in most ; as, for example, 
foremost^ mentioned above, hindmost^ upmost, utmost^ &c., about the 
formation of which the grammarians are not yet agreed. The most 



words good and bad are irregularly compared in Greek, Latin and all its 
modern progeny, Italian, Spanish, French, &c., and also in Anglo-Saxon, 
German (as regards gut, good,) and other Teutonic dialects. These irregula- 
rities have generally come down from the remotest periods to which lan- 
guages can be traced, and have been transmitted from the ancient languages 
to the dialects derived from them. Thus, from the comparative melior 
(better) in Latin are derived the words of similar signification in all the 
modern languages descended from the Latin, in Italian, French, (fee. The 
irregularity of good, better, best comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon, and to 
this and the other Teutonic dialects, likely, from some remote common pa- 
rent-language. 

That the adjectives expressive of these particular qualities are irregular in 
so many apparently independent languages, is, perhaps, to be accounted for 
from the fact that these are the very words of the class of comparatives and 
superlatives which must have been earliest employed and most frequently 
employed in the dialects to which they respectively belong. "Words to ex- 
press the qualities good and bad in different degrees of intensity becoming 
very early necessary in the everyday intercourse of hfe, may have been re- 
ceived into current use and have obtained fixed and immovable possession 
as articulate signs, long before any general law for the formation of compa- 
ratives and superlatives came to be recognised in language. In other words, 
terms expressive of the meaning of better and worse may have been esta- 
blished immovably in many languages anterior to the use of inflection to 
express comparison. 

Again, words very frequently used in the intercourse of life, especially 
words used much by the illiterate, (and all men were illiterate when their 
languages were yet in the early period of their formation,) suffer greater 
wear and tear, than words more rarely employed and current chiefly among 
the learned. In the progress of a language such words undergo greater and 
more rapid changes. These considerations may account for the anomalies 
and contractions which occur in some of the forms enuinerated in the above 
table of irregular comparison, and in the adjectives of similar meaning in 
other languages. 

It will be seen that these remarks are not restricted in their application 
to adjectives, but may be employed to explain the general fact that the chief 
irregularities of inflection fall in all languages upon words which express 
similar meaning and perform similar functions. The verbs, for instance, 
which express a meaning equivalent to our verb to be are ii-regularly inflect- 

[(27) Repeat the substance of what is said of a class of superlatives ending in most. 



g 95.] COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 30Y 

common oxjinion is, that these and similar words are compounds of 
fore^ vp2^ei\ out^ &c., with the adverb most. This view is adopted by 
Kask. (See Rask's Ang. Sax. Gram. § 133.) Grimm, on the contrary, 
thinks the st in these words to be the superlative termination, added 
by excess of expression to the Anglo-Saxon superlatives, forma^ first, 
iifema.^ upmost, utema^ outmost, &c., as if from worst., forgetting that 
it is already a superlative, we should form worstest., or as from chief 
which is a word superlative in meaning, we sometimes find the form 
chiefest. (See Latham's Gram. p. 79, and Eng. Lang. 2 ed. p. 270.) 
Dr. Latham seems inclined to adopt the views of Grimm. 

(28) There is another small class of superlatives in which the word 
most is added to comparative forms. We may enumerate those of most 
common occurrence. Hind-er-most., inn-er-most., neth-er-most^ out-er- 
most, up2J-er-most., utt-er-most. "We have so divided these words by 
hyphens as to exhibit their composition to the eye. "We might, like 
Dr. Latham, have divided most in each case into its constituents m-ost, 
(or perhaps mo-st, for more and most are formed from the old English 
mo or moe^) and have written hind-er-m-ost^ inn-er-m-ost., as he has 
done, or, perhaps still more correctly, we might have represented their 
elements thus: hind-er-mo-st, inn- er-mo-st., &c.] 

§ 95. Comparison of Adverbs. — (1) Some adverbs admit of 
inflectional comparison like adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, soonest ; oft or 
often, oftener, oftenest. (2) Such adverbs, however, are very few in 
number. We know of none besides soon and often, except those which 
are originally adjectives, and come under the class of adjectives ad- 
verbially employed. (3) The comparatives and superlatives of some 
adjectives are used adverhially, though the positive form of these 
adjectives is not so employed. (4) For example, better and best are 



ed in all the languages enumerated above ; and in how many more we know 
not. The assertion of hehtg or existence is often expressed in the different 
tenses and even in the different persons and numbers by words entirely 
distinct. The reasoning above used applies, if possible, with greater force 
to this verb than to the irregular adjectives. The forms employed in the 
most ancient languages to express its different tenses were, likely, immovably 
fixed in common use, long before any regular law of tense-formation was re- 
cognised in those languages. 

(28) Repeat what is said of another class ending also in mosti\ 

§ 95. (1) Do any adverbs admit of inflectional comparison ? Give examples. ('2) What 
is said of the number of such adverbs ? (3) What is said of the ad\ erbial use of the com- 
paratives and superlatives of some adjectives? (4) Illustrate by examples. 



808 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 95. 

used adverbially, and when so used, serve as the comparative and 
superlative of the adverb toell ; but good is never used adverbially 
by those who speak correctly.* In the same manner, ivorse and 
worst are employed adverbially, but not the adjective had. Badly 
or ill may be considered the positive form of worse and ivorst, when 
used adverbially. The comparatives and superlatives more and 
most and less and least are, as we have already seen, employed to 
modify adjectives. The positive much sometimes modifies compa- 
ratives, as, much wiser, &c. Little rarely modifies other adjectives. 
(6) Adverbs of manner very often admit of comparison, because 
the quality denoted by the adjective involved in the meaning, and 
generally in the form of these adverbs has difterent degrees of inten- 
sity. Thus, wisely admits of comparison for the same reason that the 
adjective wise involved in it admits of comparison. (V) But these 
adverbs, when regularly formed from adjectives (except the adjec- 
tive itself, as in the case of better and hest, is usurped as an adverb) 
have a form too unwieldy to admit of inflectional comparison. (8) 
They are, therefore, compared by using the modifying words more 
and most; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; justly, more justly, 
most justly. 

(9) In the analysis of such adverbs, we may as well take the two 
words separately, and consider moi^e and most as adverbial modifica- 
tions of other adverbs. 

(10) The comparative and superlative of adjectives when formed by 
the help of more and most may as well be treated in the same w^ay in 



* (5) The adjective good is often used (by careless speakers in the United 
States and perhaps in some other places) instead of the adverb well. For 
example, we may heai* persons who have received an imperfect education 
say : The hoy writes good, the Jire burns good, I did that good, tfec. Such ex- 
pressions are grossly UDgrammatical and vulgar, and when childi-en catch 
them from tmeducated persons around them, it requires much labor and 
watchfulness to unlearn them. This may be regarded as an improper exten- 
sion of the adjective complementaiy modification. 



(5) Repeat the snbstaBce of the note. 

(6) What remarks are made in reference to adverbs of manner ? (7) Are adverbs of 
manner inflected? (8) How are they compared ? lllnstrate by examples. 

(9) How may we proceed in the analysis of adverbs accompanied by viore and most f 

(10) How in the analysis of the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives made by more 



§ 95.] COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 309 

analysis ; the words more and most being regarded simply like other 
adverbial modifications of adjectives. (11) They differ in no respect, 
as regards grammatical form or grammatical function, from other ad- 
verbial modifications. There is no necessity for mentioning the names 
comparative and superlative degree^ except when these degrees are 
formed by inflection. (12) Then it will be necessary, when the compar- 
ative or superlative form occurs, to say that the adjective is an adjective 
in the comparative or superlative degree, or that it is an adjective with 
the comparative or superlative inflectional modification. In writing 
we may express this by the abbreviations, Des. A. Comp. and Des. A. 
Sup. — Descriptive adjective of the comparative degree, and descriptive 
adjective of the superlative degree. 

(13) We may notice, before we leave this subject, that a. superlative 
adverb is sometimes accompanied by the determinative the ; as. This ioy 
writes the best; John acted the most peudently. Some seem to treat 
the determinative in this case as belonging to the form of the superla- 
tive, and attempt no further analysis. We think it belongs to the noun 
(generally the noun manner) implied in the adverb. For example, the 
expressions above may be resolved thus : This 'hoy writes in the hest 
manner ; John acted in the most prudent manner. Here it is obvious 
that the determinative affects manner. (14) Sometimes, especially in 
colloquial usage, a descriptive adjective as well as a determinative, is 
used in connection with a superlative adverb, and this too must be 
regarded as modifying the noun implied in the adverb ; as. The toy 
behaved the hest possible under the circumstances ; equivalent to. The 
hoy hehaved in the hest mat^i^er possible^ &c. This use of a descriptive 
adjective with an adverb is not, in our opinion, an elegant form of 
expression, but rather one to be avoided. It is much better in such 
cases to employ the full form with the word manner expressed, than to 
resort to the abbreviated adverbial form. 

[(15) The same may be said of such expressions as. This hoy he- 
haves the best of all. The analysis of this form of expression presents 
a difficulty. What word .does the noun and preposition modification 
OF ALL affect ? (For all is here evidently an adjective employed as a 
noun, or implying a noun.) What does it modify ? Does it affect the 

and most. (11) Assign the reasons for pursuing this course. (12) In what manner do we 
treat the inflectional forms in analysis ? 

(13) What is said of a superlative adverb/ accompanied by the determinati\'e the ? Give 
example and explanation. (14) What is said in reference to the use of a descriptive adjec- 
tive with such superlatives? 

\iV9) Kepeat the substance of what is said about such forms of expression as, This ioyb&- 
the test of all. 



310 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 96. 

subject noun hoy^ and are we consequently to supply with it the word 
lyoys f The expression will then be equivalent to This ioy of all the 
toys ItehaTecl in the lest manner. We incline to adopt this as the best 
mode of analyzing this class of expressions, and to think that there is 
here an awkward separation of the complement of all from the word 
which it modifies, or that of all is introduced, as it were, by after- 
thought. Other modes of analysis of such expressions might be sug- 
gested, such as considering of all.^ like the determinative fAe, and the 
descriptive adjective in the forms above considered, as modifying the 
word manner implied in iest ; but all these modes seem to us to pre- 
sent greater difficulties, and to involve longer and more awkward 
suppressions. We think that it is better in all such cases to forego the 
use of the adverb, and adopt the circuitous mode of expression.] 

We give no exercises for the present on the above modifications of 
adjectives and adverbs, because an accessory proposition is necessary to 
make full sense. 

§ 96. Having considered the modification of adjectives by inflec- 
tion, we proceed to consider the various ways in which they are 
modified by separate words. (1) We shall not need to spend 
much time on this subject, since all the modifications of this kind ' 
applied to adjectives correspond exactly either to those which are 
applied to nouns, or to those which are applied to verbs, and these 
we have already explained. We shall give notice as we pass along, 
when any of these modifications are applicable to adverbs. 

Modifications of Adjectives and Adverbs consisting of 
SEPARATE Words. — (2) 1st. Some adjectives admit of a dative mo- 
dification, like verbs. (3) The adjectives most frequently so modi- 
fied are like^ near, nearer, nearest, next. We subjoin a number of 
examples which may be used as an exercise in analysis. 

(4) " He Cometh forth like a flower.^'' " Who teacheth like him ?" 
" He shall be like a tree,^^ &c. " Lest I become like ^Aem," &c. 
" The righteous shall flourish like the palm-tree, he shall grow like 
the cedar in Lebanon." " There was none like thee before thee." 



§ 96. (1) What remark is made in reference to the modifications consisting of separate 
■words applied to adjectives and adverbs ? 

(2) What is the first modification of this kind here mentioned? (3) Enumerate the adjec- 
tives most frequently modified bv a dative. 

(4) Repeat some of the examples, and point out the adjective and the modifying dative 
in all the examples. 



§96.] ACCUSATIVE MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 311 

" The men near Micah's house.'''' " They knew not that evil was 
near themr The mouth of the fooKsh is near destruction." John 
sat near his brother. His sister sits next him. 

[ (5) All these adjectives instead of the dative are frequently fol- 
lowed by a noun and preposition modification^ the preposition to or 
often unto being interposed between them and the completing noun. 
(6) Hence most grammarians in the analysis of the above examples 
would supply the preposition to before the nouns which follow like^ 
near^ &c., and say that these nouns are in the accusative or objective 
case after to. (7) We think that there is really no ellipsis in these ex- 
amples, but that they exhibit another remnant of the ancient dative, 
not yet altogether superseded by the noun and preposition, but em- 
ployed interchangeably with it. (8) We are obliged to recognise a da- 
tive in English (see § 79,) in order to explain satisfactorily several 
forms of expression still used in our language. We may therefore, as 
well recognise the dative in cases like those before us, and in all simi- 
lar cases, where we have a manifest remnant of the old dative usage. 

(9) Some grammarians have ventured to call near a preposition 
whenever it is followed by a noun or pronoun, without the inter- 
vention of a preposition. The noun, according to their analysis, is 
in the objective case after the preposition near. This mode of ana- 
lysis is altogether unwarrantable, and no recent grammarian of ac- 
knowledged high standing, we believe, has adopted it. To supply the 
preposition to is far preferable to this, though we think the recognition 
of a dative use of the noun in such expressions is the proper course to 
adopt.] 

Exercise. — To form prepositions containing examples of adjectives 
modified by a dative. . 

(10) 2d. Some adjectives are modified by an accusative or objec- 
tive of price, time, measure or dimension, like verbs. (See § 84.) 
We subjoin examples, which may serve, like those in the last para- 
graph, for an exercise in analysis. 



[(5) By what kind of modification are these adjectives often accompanied instead of a 
dative V (6) How do grammarians generally explain the dative in the above kind of proposi- 
tions ? (7) Is there really an ellipsis or suppression of a preposition in the above examples ? 
(8) Eepcat the remark about the English' dative. 

(9) What have some grammarians considered near when followed by a noun, and what 
is said of their mode of analysis ?] 

(10; What is the second form of modification of adjectives by separate words ? 



312 STRUCirKE or la^-guage, [§ 96. 

[ (11) This house is worth four fhoiMand pounds. The hook is 
wonh ten shiUings. That ^vork is Trorth all the labor expended upon 
it. It is worth wMle to consider a suhject, &c. {whale is here a noun 
in 'heacusative). "William departed th.s life, aged tMrty-fice years. 
That man is sixty years o'd. This tahle \Bjite feet long and tfiree feet 
wde. The honse is four stoi'ies high. The wall is eighteen inches 
thick, ten feet high, and tico hundred feet long. The river, in. this 
place, \s fifteen feet deep. 

(12) It win be noticed that the adjective old. and the adjectives of 
dimension take the accusative of time and measm-e before them.] 

ExEECiSE. — Form a given number of propositions containing ex- 
amples of adjectives modified by an accusative of time., measure., kc. 

yoTE. — ^Those who class the word ago among tho adverbs, must assign 
it a place with those which take an accusative of time before them. For 
example, That event happened twenty teaes ago. TTe cannot admit thia 
explanation of the modification of the word ago, and consequently, must de- 
clme classing it among the adverbs. Ago or agone, or agori (for so the word 
was often spelled in our old authors — we have an Instance in 1 Sam. 80 : 13, 
" Three days agone I fell sick ;" and in Archbishop TOlotson, as quoted by 
EL Tooke, " Thirty yeai-s agone") was once in common use as the perfect 
participle of the verb go. See H. Tooke, pp. 25-i-25T, Mr. R. Taylor's edi- 
tion, ISiO. "VTe select a few of the examples adduced by Mr. Tooke, enough, 
we think, to settle this matter beyond the reach of all cavil 

"Her love is after scone ago.'"" — Gower. 

"The remenant was all ago." — Idem, 

"For after that he was ago." — ^Idem. 

" God wotte, worldely joye is soone ago." — Chaucer. 

"Ago was every sorowe and every fere."' — Idem. 

" Of any thinge of suche a time ago>t:. — Idem. 

" May sigh, that thei were agoxe." — Gower. 

""VThan that the mysty vapoure was agoxe." — Chaucer. 

"For I loved one, ful longe sythe agoxe" — Idem. 

"But sothe is said, goxe sithen many a day." — ^Idem. 
- It is, we think, perfectly manifest from these examples, that our old 
authors used ago interchangeably with goxe, as the participle of go. This 
fact affords us the best guidance to the true analysis of the forms of ex- 
pression ia which ago occurs. In the proposition, He lived thirty years ago, 

[(11) Eepeat some of the examples, and in ail the propositions given point out the adjec- 
tive and the accusative of pri-ee, time, &c. 

(12) Eepeat the rem°rk in reference to the adjective cli and the adjectives of dimension.] 



§ 96.] INFINITIVE MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 313 

we might consider the noun years as the accusative of time to the verb livedy 
and itself modified bj the participle ago. Or, what we think better, we 
may consider years as subject noun to the verb are suppressed and modified 
by the participle ago. In accordance with this view the above expression 
may be completed thus. He lived thirty years are {since) ago or gone. That 
this is the true way of supplying the ellipsis, we are the more confirmed in 
thinking, by such examples as the last two given above : " Ful longe sythe 
(= since) agone ;" " Gone sithen (= since) many a day." Mr. Tyrwhitt, 
Moxon's edition, 1843, gives this line, we know not on what authority, 
" Gone sithen is many a day." This would be more to our purpose, if we 
could confide in Mr. Tyrwhitt's readings. But we cannot. 

Another mode of analysis, not essentially different from the last, is to 
treat the noun of time as in the case absolute with the participle ago. 

(13) 3d. Many adjectives are modified or completed by infini- 
tives in the same manner as verbs. We subjoin a few examples for 
exercise in analysis. 

[ (14) Your friend is very ambitious to excel his neighbors. The 
young man is desirous to learn. He is anxious to succeed in his enter- 
prise. That action is worthy to le imitated. This boy is prone to do 
mischief. That boy is prompt to 'perform his duty. John is now ready 
to go home.* 

(15) Participles or adjectives formed from verbs which take an 



* The following examples may be regarded as somewhat different in char- 
acter. He is too lazy to learn. He is wise enough to taTce care of himself. 
Such infinitives assist, together with the adverbs enough and too, in indi- 
cating the degree of intensity which the adjective is made to express in these 
particular case?. They serve a purpose similar to that served by accessory 
propositions which indicate degrees of intensity. {See §§ 120-122.) 

Some adverbs take also a modifying infinitive ; as. He does not Tcnoiv how 
TO act ; He does not understand when to be silent, whe^i to speak. " The Son of 
Man hath not where to lay his head." When we resolve the adverbs, these 
become identical with the infinitive which modifies a noun. Hoio = in what 
manner ; when = at what time, and where = at what place. The nouns 
manner, time, place, are what the infinitives above really modify. — 
These infinitives, with their accompaniments, may be considered as con- 
tracted accessory propositions {see § 142). 

(13) What is the third modification of adjectives ? 

[(14) Eepeat some examples, and point out the adjective and Infinitive modification in all 
the examples. 

(15) Eepeat the remark about participles.] 



314 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAQE. [§ 96. 

infinitive modification of course take the same modification. Such 
adjectives, for example, as accustomed^ habituated^ inclined^ addicted^ 
disposed^ &c., come within this description.] 

Exercise. — Form a number of propositions containing examples of 
this construction. 

(16) 4th. Many adjectives are modified by a noun with a pre- 
2Josition, like nouns and verbs. (1*7) A few of the adverbs, formed 
from adjectives which take this modification, are sometimes completed 
in the same way. (18) We have examples in the following propo- 
sitions : The man acted conformably to your orders ; John acted 
consistently with his character. When we resolve the adverbs 
conformably and consistently^ as in the equivalent propositions. The 
man acted in a manner conformable to your orders, John acted 
IN a manner consistent with his character^y^o, shall see that they 
are modified by a noun and preposition, because the adjective in- 
volved in them is so modified. 

[(19) Difierent adjectives take after them different prepositions 
with a modifying noun, and the same adjective always takes the same 
preposition, or the same set of prepositions after it. Most adjectives 
taking after them a preposition are confined exclusively to a single 
preposition ; a few take two or more, but generally with some change 
of meaning. It may be useful to enumerate the prepositions which 
are most frequently employed in modifying adjectives. • 

(20) The greatest number of adjectives susceptible of this form of 
modification take the preposition to exclusively ; as, adequate to, agree- 
able to, convenient to, (fee. 

(21) Many adjectives take the preposition of exclusively ; as, de- 
sirous of, capable of, full of, worthy or unworthy of, careful of, &c. 
The of before the noun is sometimes omitted after worthy and unwor- 
thy. Careful sometimes takes after it the preposition in, but with a 
different sense. 

(22) Some adjectives take the preposition /<?r; as, ft for, useful for, 
thankful for, &c. 

(16) Mention the fourth form of modification applied to adjectives. (17) Are adverbs 
ever modified in the same way ? (18) Illustrate by example, and explain why the adverb 
is susceptible of this modification. 

[(19) Eepeat the substance of what is said in reference to different adjectives taking dif- 
ferent prepositions after them. 

(20) What preposition do the greatest number of adjectives take after them ? 

(21) Mention some that take after them of. (22) Some that take/o/*; some fi^om. (23) 



§ 96.] NOUN AND PREPOSITION MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 315 

Some tsikefrom; as, distant from, remote from^ far from^ &c. 

(23) Some take the preposition with ; as, replete with^ level with^ &c. 

(24) Some take the preposition in ; as, fruitful in, abundant in^ 
rich in, poor in, &c. 

(25) Some few take on or upon ; as, in tent on or upon, dependent 
on or upon. 

(26) A few take the preposition at ; as, expert at, or ex'pert in. 
Some few adjectives perhaps take other prepositions. 

(27) Adjectives, especially those derived from verbs, are sometimes 
modified (like verbs) by a preposition alone without a noun. {8ee 
§81: 28.) 

(28) We have already had occasion to notice that adjectives are 
often modified by adverbs, and sometimes adverbs by other adverbs. 
{See § 92.) It seems unnecessary here to add any thing more on this 
subject. 

(29) We have now finished the course of instruction which we 
deem necessary for the analysis, of simple assertive propositions. We 
shall follow this np in the next chapter by a brief account of the con- 
struction of Interrogatim and Imperative propositions.] 

EsAxMPLES FOE ANALYSIS. — Virtuous actious are agreeable to the will 
of our Creator. That boy's capacity is fully equal to the taslc imposed 
upon him. This unfortunate man is bereft of all his property. That 
man is careful of his money. The member is absent /r^m Lis place. 
His life is conformable to his principles. That man's life is not con- 
sistent with \\\%' professions. Men are generally too fond of pleasure. 
Fear is inseparable from the consciousness of guilt. I am thankful 
for your kind advice. That physician is very successful in his prac- 
tice. All men do not live conformably to their resolutions. Many 
act inconsistently tcith their professions. To live a virtuous life is to 
live agreeably to reason. That stranger is fox from his own country. 

Exercises. — ^Forna a given number of propositions containing ex- 
amples of adjectives accompanied with this species of modification. 

Some that take icith. (24) Some that take in. (25) Some that take on or it{pon. (26) 
Some that take at. 

(27) In what way are adjectives, especially verbals sometimes modified ? 

(28) Eepeat remark about adjectives modified by adverbs. 

(29) What have we now finished, and what do we next proceed to consider ?] 



CHAPTER Vm. 

OF INTEEEOGATIVE AND IMPEEATIYE PEOPOSITIONS. 

§ 9Y. Interrogative Propositions. — (1) As regards matter, 
the interrogative proposition is tliat employed in asking a question. 
(2) As to its form, the interrogative proposition differs from the asser- 
tive proposition only in the arrangement of the subject noun and 
the verb, and not always even in this. (3) Some interrogative pro- 
positions commence with an interrogative word which serves to mark 
their character. (4) When the interrogative word is the subject of 
the proposition, or a modification of the subject, the order of arrange- 
ment is exactly the same as in the assertive proposition. That is to 
say, the subject noun precedes, the verb follows. (5) But when the 
interrogative word is not the subject of the proposition, nor a modi- 
fication of the subject ;^ or when an interrogative proposition is 
formed without an interrogative word, the order of arrangement is 
reversed, and the verb precedes the subject noun. (6) It will here 
be remembered that in the comjoound tenses^ it is the auxiliary which 
is the verb — which possesses the assertive force — and that it is this 

* "We have no word in our language to indicate interrogation exclusively. 
All our interrogative words perform another function in the proposition be- 
sides indicating that it is interrogative. In other languages there are words 
which perhaps indicate interrogation exclusively. The Latin ne enclitic may 
be given as an example. 



§ 97. (1) What is said in reference to the matter of the interrogative proposition? (2) 
In what does its form differ from the form of the assertive proposition ? (3) How is the 
character of some interrogative propositions marked ? (4) What is the order of arrange- 
ment In the proposition, when the interrogative word is the subject noun, or completes the 
subject? (5) What is the general order when the inteiTogative word is not the subject 
noun, or when there is no interrogative word used in forming an interrogative proposition ? 
(6) Kepeat the remark about the compound tenses. 



§ 97.] OF INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 3 1*7 

alone which in interrogative propositions comes before the subject 
noun. 

(1) It must also be noticed, that in all interrogative propositions 
which require the subject noun to be placed after the verb, we use 
the tenses formed by combining the verb do with the infinitive of 
the several verbs (i. e., the progressive forms), instead of using the 
simple indefinite and simple past tenses of those verbs. (8) The 
verbs to be and to have are exceptions, since they have no tenses 
formed by the verb do. (See § 60.) (9) In our older authors, and 
in poetry, the simple tenses are often employed in interrogations, 
when the order of subject and verb is inverted, but scarcely ever in 
prose composition or in conversation, as the language is now 
used. 

(10) We may express the rule at present followed in our lan- 
guage in the arrangement of interrogative propositions briefly thus : 
When an interrogative proposition has an interrogative word for its 
subject noun, or accompanying and completing its subject, it is ar- 
ranged in the same order as the assertive proposition ; but when it 
has not an interrogative word for subject noun, or complement of 
its subject, the order of arrangement is inverted, and the subject 
noun placed after the verb. (11) The learner will observe that in 
the written language all interrogative propositions are indicated by 
the interrogative mark (?). (12) In the spoken language, all inter- 
rogations — all questions — which do not commence with an interro- 
gative word are distinguished, by good speakers, from assertive pro- 
positions, by a strongly marked rising inflection of the voice at their 
close. 

We give examples of the difterent forms of the interrogative pro- 
position, and, to render the distinction between it and the agsertive 
proposition more clear, when this distinction is effected by arrange- 
ment and without an interrogative word, we shall place the assertive 
opposite to the interrogative form. 



(7) What else is to be noticed in regard of the formation of interrogative propositions ? 
(8) Repeat the remark in reference to the verbs to he and to have. (9) What is said of the 
practice of our older authors, and of the poets ? 

(10) Repeat the rule for the arrangement of interrogative propositions. (11) How are in- 
terrogative propositions indicated in the written language ? (12) How are those which do 
not commence with an mterrogative word distinguished in speaking ? 



318 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 97. 

(13) 1st. Interrogative propositions having the interrogative word 
for their subject noun, or to complete the subject. These do not differ 
in arrangement from assertive propositions. The interrogative word 
alone distinguishes them. Examples : Who is at the door ? Wlio went . 
to the post-office ? Who has read that poem ? Who will lend me a 
knife ? Which boy is the best scholar ? What lies on the table ? 
What broke the glass ? What has happened ? &c. 

(14) 2d. Interrogative propositions in which the interrogative 
word is not the subject noun, but completes the predicate. Here the 
order of the subject noun and verb are inverted. Examples: Whom 
do you see? What have you done ? Where have you been? Why 
do you complain ? When did he arrive ? Whither (where) wiU he 
go ? How does he succeed ? &c. 

(15) It will be observed that in all cases the interrogative word 
begins the proposition. 

(16) 3d. Interrogative propositions (or questions) formed without 
an interrogative word, contrasted with the corresponding assertive 
proposition. 

Assertive Form. Interrogative Form. 

I am right. Am I right ? 

I have time. Have I time ? 

We were right. Were we right ? 

They had horses. Had they horses ? 

He goes to town. Does he go to town ? 

He went to town. Did he go to town ? 

You gave him money. Did you give him money ? 

I have seen. Have I seen ? 

He had arrived. Had he arrived ? 

They will come. Will they come ? 

(17) Here the subject noun is invariably placed after the verb; 
when a compound tense is used, after the auxiliary verb, as it is 
calied. 

It will be noticed that with all verbs, except to be and to- have, 
the emphatic indefinite and past tense made with the verb to do, is em- 
ployed in the interrogative form, in all cases where the subject noim 

(18) Give examples of the first class of interrogative propositions, viz. : those Vnleli iiave 
an interrogative word for tlieir subject noun. 

(14) Of the second class. (15) AVhere dees the inteiTogative word always stand ? 

(16) Give examples of the third class, contrasting the assertive with the interrogative 
form. 

(17) Eepeat over again the observations about the place of the subject uoun when a com- 
pound tense is used, and about the use of the emphatiG tenses. 



§ 91.] OF INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 319 

and verb ai'e inverted, or when the subject is not an interrogative word, 
or completed by an interrogative word. 

(18) We may give some examples from the antiquated and poetical 
language of the simple indefinite and past tenses employed interroga- 
tively, when the order of arrangement is inverted : " Despisest thou 
the riches of his goodness?" " Knoio ye what I have done to you?" 
" Having eyes, see ye not ?" " Through breaking the law, dislionorest 
thou God ?" " Thinkest thou this right, &c. ?" " Behevest thou this ?" 
" Believest thou the prophets ?" " But what meoMt you of fugitives 
herein ?" — Spencer's State of Ireland. " How commeth it then to 
passe ?"— Idem. " What hear I ?"— Idem. 

We subjoin some examples from the poets : — 

" What/mr ice then ?"— Milton. 

" What now avails that noble thirst of fame ?" — Thomson. 

"JSTow Mame we most the nurslings or the nurse?" — Oowper. 

'■'' Where Jinds philosophy her eagle eye?" — Idem. 

" And chase we still the phantom through the fire ?" 

" And toil we still for sublunary pay ?" — Young. 

" Seest thou thy lover lowly laid ? 

nearest thou the groans that pierce his breast ?" — Burns. 
'"'• Breathes there the man with soul so dead?" — Scott. 
"And said /that my blood was cold ?" — Idem. 

The reader will find on examination that in all these propositions, 
if expressed in the current prose, of the present day, we would intro- 
duce the tenses formed with the auxiliary do instead of the simple 
tenses. 

There is a rule in reference to the answer made to an interrogative 
proposition, which we may give in this place. It is an important rule, 
and one often violated by uneducated and careless persons in conver- 
sation. 

(19) Exile. — The pronoun in the answer must be in the same case 
with the interrogative word in the question. 

Exajviples. — Wlio is in the room ? Ans. /== / am in the room. To 
such questions the uneducated often answer me. The impropriety of 
this answer is manifest when we supply the words suppressed and ex- 
hibit the complete proposition implied; thus. Me is in the room. Even 

CIS) Eepeat a number of the antiquated and poetical examples which differ from the pre- 
sent order of English prose composition. 

(19) Eepeat the rule and illustrate by examples. 



320 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 98. 

the least educated person perceives tlie impropriety of this. Whom do 
they dlame ? Ans. Him= They tlame him. Whose hat is this ? Ans. 
Johii's or mine =■ This hat is Johfi's^ or 7nine. 

§ 98. Remarks on the Interrogative Words. — (1) The in- 
terrogative words used as subjects of interrogative propositions are 
who, what, which, and formerly wh€ther=wh.ich. of the two. (2) 
These are commonly called the interrogative pronouns. (3) The 
word who has an undoubted claim to this appellation. It always 
performs alone the function of a noun. It cannot take a noun with 
it ; we cannot, for example, say who man did so ? It cannot, there- 
fore, be alleged that a noun is understood with it or implied in it. 
Who is used exclusively to represent persons, and not the lower 
animals or inanimate things. 

(4) What interrogative, when used alone, always represents a 
thing. It appears in Anglo-Saxon grammars as the neuter form of who, 
which is masculine and feminine. In the language as now used 
what differs from who in this, that it is employed as an adjective, 
and thus employed, sometimes accompanies nouns which denote 
persons. For example, " What man is there of you ?" Matt. 7 : 9. 
"What man knoweth the things of a man ?" 1 Cor. 2 : 11. 
This is more emphatic than to say. Who is there of you? and 
Who knoweth the things of a man ? 

(5) WJiich is perhaps to be considered an adjective, and, when 
used alone, as having a noun implied, like any other adjective em- 
ployed substantively. (6) Used interrogatively, this word may 
accompany nouns significant either of persons or the lower animals 
and thing's, and when used substantively, may represent objects of 
both these classes. Thus we say, which hoy did that ? which is to 
blame ? speaking of persons — as well as, which road leads to the 
village? and which is the best bound? speaking of books. (1) Which 
has been improperly represented as the neuter of who. Instead of 



§ 98. (1) Enumerate the interrogative words used as subjects of propositions. (2) "What 
are these words commonly called? (3) Eepeat what is said of the word tcho. 

(4) Eepeat the remarks in reference to tcTiat; and give examples of wTiai employed as 
an adjective. 

(5) How may tcIdcJi be considered? (6) What kind of nouns does it accompany when 
Tised as an interrogative ? Give examples. (7) How has which been improperly represent- 
ed ? And in what light is it considered by the most recent grammarians ? 



§ 98.] OF INTERROGATIVE WORDS. 321 

this the modern grammarians have assigned plausible reasons for 
considering it a compound of the interrogative root tvh and lie, the 
Scotch whilk being a step in its progress to its present English 
form. (See Latham, Eng. Lang. p. 253, 2d Ed. and Grimm 
Deutsche Gram. vol. iii. pp. 47, 48.) 

(8) Whether appears, also, to be a compound of wh and either. 
It is now scarcely in use as an interrogative. Instead of it we use 
which of the two. We have examples of the ancient usage in the 
questions, " Whether of them did the will of his father ? " " Whether 
is greater, the gold or the temple V 

(9) The interrogative who may be employed plurally as well 
as singularly. For example, " Who are these that fly as a 
cloud?" &c. " Who are happiest among men?" This word has 
also a possessive or genitive form, whose, and another form, whora, 
which was anciently used as a dative, but now is employed as an 
accusative. (10) What and which have no possessive form, and 
are indifferently employed as nominatives or accusatives ; that is, 
as subject nouns or objectives, or noun with preposition modifi- 
cations. 

(10) Some of the other interrogatives, which serve only as modi- 
fying words and not as subject nouns, and are therefore called adverbs, 
seem to have been originally cases or derivatives of who. At least, 
they generally contain what may be considered the interrogative sign 
in our language, viz. : the consonantal sound wh. (11) Where == in 
what place seems to have been an old feminine dative with a noun im- 
plied, why =for what cause, an ablative, when = at what time, an ac- 
cusative. Whither == towards what place, is manifestly a derivative or 
compound from the same root. (12) How =in what manner, is sup- 
posed to come from the same source, the w of the wh having been 
suppressed, possibly because the combination of wh with the vowel 
sound represented by ow was unpleasant to pronounce and disagree- 
able to the ear. 



(8) Eepeat the remarks ia reference to whether ; and give examples of it used interroga- 
tively. 

(9) Is who ever used plurally ? And wl^at cases has it? (10) Eepeat the remarks in re- 
ference to case forms of what and which. 

(10) What do some of the interrogative words not used as subject nouns seem to have 
been originally ? (11) Tell what is said of nohere, tvJiy, when, and whither. (12) What is 
said of liow ? 



322 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 99. 

We shall have more to say of these forms elsewhere, especially 
when we come to treat of the relative or conjunctive pronouns, and in 
additional remarks on the determinatives and the pronouns^ §§ 158, 159. 

Exercise I. — Form a given nnmher of interrogative propositions 
with interrogative words for their subject nouns. 

Exercise II. — A given number commencing with an interrogative 
pronoun which does not serve as subject noun. 

Exercise III. — A given number commencing with an interrogative 
adverb. 

Exercises IY., Y., &c. — A given number of interrogative proposi- 
tions formed without interrogative words. 

§ 99. Of Imperative Propositioxs. — (1) As regards ma^^fe?*, the 
imperative proposition is distinguished by the fact that it is employed 
in expressing commands, requests, entreaties, (fee. (2) As regards 
form, it is distinguished by the following peculiarities — 1st. The 
imperative form, or mode of the verb, consisting in our language of 
the root without inflection, is employed in this class of propositions. 
2d. The subject of such propositions in the prose language of the 
present day, is always of the second person ; that is, always a party 
or parties addressed. 3d. The subject noun, being always the 
pronoun of the second person singular or the second person plural, 
and capable of being readily supplied, is most commonly suppressed. 
4th. When the pronoun is expressed, it is placed after the verb. 
(3) The suppression in the one case, and the arrangement after the 
verb in the other case, equally serve to distinguish the imperative 
from the assertive form. (4) When the pronoun is placed after the 
verb the plural invperative proposition does not differ in form from 
the j^lural interrogative proposition in the indelinite tense, so far as the 
words and arrangement are concerned. Thus, resist yoa, or ye, evil, 
may form either a question or a command — an interrogative or an 
imperative proposition. (5) In speaking, the tone of command or 
entreaty is clearly distinct from the tone or inflection of inquiry. 
This fact prevents all mistake of the one form for the other in 



§ 99. '1) What is said of the matt r of the imperative proposition ? (2) Repeat sep- 
arately the four peculiarities -which distinguish the imperative proposition. (3) What two 
circumstances distinguish the imperative from the assertive proposition ? (4) With what 
other kind of proposition does the plural imperative sometimes agree in form, and in what 
case ? Give an example. ^5) In this case bow are these two kinds of propositions distin- 
guished in spoken discourse ? How in written discourse ? 



§ 99.] IMPERATIVE PROPOSITIONS. VOCATIVES. 323 

spoken discourse. The mark of interrogation serves to distinguish 
the interrogative form in wiitten discourse. 

(6) Some imperative propositions, having a subject of the third 
person, occur in our older writers and in the poets. In these the sub- 
ject noun is expressed, and generally placed after the verb. For ex- 
amples of these antiquated and poetical imperative propositions, see § 
55, p. 112. 

We subjoin a few examples of imperative propositions for an exer- 
cise in analysis. 

(7) " Fret not thyself because of evil men." " Honor thy father 
and thy mother." " Hear the instruction of thy father." " Forsake not 
the law of thy mother," " Drink waters out of thine own cistern." 
"Buy the truth; sell it not." "Get wisdom, get understanding." 
Show me your exercise. Be courteous to all. " Keveal none of the- 
secrets of thy friend. Be faithful to his interests. Forsake him not 
in danger. Abhor the thought of acquiring any advantage by his 
prejudice." 

(8) Examples with the Pronoun expressed. — "Despise not thou 
the chastening of the Almighty." " Blessed be thou," &c. " Be thou 
an example," &c. " Be not thou ashamed of the testimony," &c. " Go 
ye therefore," &c. 

Exercise. — Form a given number of imperative propositions. 

(9) We may here remark that the wcative, or noun of address, is 
very often used in connectiou with this form of proposition. For exam- 
ples of the vocative in this connection, we may take the following pro- 
positions : " Go to the ant, thoti sluggard ; consider her ways." " My 
son, forget not mj law\" 

" Daugiiter of Faith, awake ! arise ! illume 
The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb." — Campbell. 

(10) These vocatives, or nouns, employed in addressing or calling 
on the party to which our discourse is directed, do not form any part of 
a proposition, though they stand alongside, or sometimes in the mid- 
dle of it, and therefore they admit of no grammatical analysis. It is 
the mere utterance of a name for the sake of indicating the party whom 
we address, or for the purpose of arresting his attention. It is often 



(6) Kepeat the remark about imperatives having a subject of the third person. 

(7) G-ive examples of imperative propositions in which the subject pronoun is suj 

(8) Give a few examples having the pronoim expressed. 

(9) Eepeat what is said of the use of the vocative or case of address; and give examples. 

(10) Eepeat the remarlis in reference to the function which vocatives serve in discourse. 



324 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 99. 

used, as in the quotation from Campbell, in solemn and emphatic invo- 
cation. (11) The noun or pronoun thus employed is often accom- 
panied, as in the examples above, by the usual modifications of nouns, 
by adjectixes^ by nouns in apposition^ by noun and preposition modifi- 
cations. (12) In the example above, '• Thou sluggard," and in similar 
cases, it may be doubted whether sluggard is to be considered a noun 
apposed to tliou.^ or thou as a sort of determinative giving greater em- 
phatic force to sluggard. 

(13) The t'<9catn'6 is also often used before interrogative propositions 
to arrest the attention of the party whom we interrogate. For example : 

" Vain man ! is grandeur given to gay attire?" — Beattie. 

It is also employed for the same purpose before assertive propositions. 
For example : " Son, thou art ever with me," &c. 

(14) The Tocatixe., having no grammatical dependence on the ac- 
companying proposition, is usually in printed books separated from 
the rest of the discourse by commas. (15) In analysis all that the gram- 
marian has to do with these xocatixes is to assign them their name, 
keeping them separate from the proposition, and to describe the man- 
ner in which they happen to be modified. 

We have now finished what we have to say on the construction and 
analysis of propositions, whose suloject noun and verb are only modified by 
single words — not by other propositions. It is possible that the learner 
may meet with forms of expression in simple propositions which the pre- 
ceding pages will not enable him to analyze satisfactorily. Such expressions, 
we think, will rarely occur in pure and dignified f^omposition. He who has 
made himself completely master of the system of anglysis here taught, will 
generally be able to discover for himself a method of explaining any con- 
struction which we may have overlooked. We believe that by the help of 
this method of analysis the learner may explain, in a rational manner, all 
the constructions accounted for in the syntax of other grammars (except 
those involving relative pronouns), and a number of constructions besides 
which these grammarians do not satisfaetoiily explain. 

The student of grammar should bear in mind that the first — the most 
important — step in attempting the analysis of difiicult constructions, is to 
supply correctly all words omitted by ellipsis, and complete the structure 



(11) Wliat is said of the modifications of which vocatives are susceptible ? Illustrate this 
by the examples above. (12) What remark is made in reference to the example, " Thou 
sluggard ?" 

(13) Is the vocative introduced before other kinds of propositions, and if so, for what 
purpose ? (14) What is the rule of punctuation in reference to vocatives ? Tell the reason 
of the rule. (15) What is to be done when we meet with vocatives in analysis ? 



§ 100.] SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF MODIFICATIONS. REMARKS. 325 

of the proposition. The whole difficulty in analysis often arises from ab- 
breviated forms of expression. In such cases, when the construction is filled 
up, the difficulty vanishes. 

Another class of difficitlties may be traced to what we have called the 
insensible extension of a usage in construction. This often gives rise to 
idiomatic expressions which cannot be satisfactorily explained without refer- 
ence to the history of the language. Cases of this kind do not come within 
the scope of an elementary treatise on grammar. It is well to advert to the 
most important and the most current of these idiomatic expressions ; but aa 
the grammarian cannot reach them by laying down general principles, he 
must discuss each separately, and since they are numerous, he cannot hope 
to explain them all. Much here, as well as in the case of abbreviated ex- 
pressions, must be left to the ingenuity of the learner. Good sense and a 
careful study of the grammatical contrivances of language, will enable him 
to surmount most difficulties. Continual practice in analysis will secure 
facility and readiness in supplying ellipses and developing abbreviated ex- 
pressions. 

It must not be thought that by this species of exercise the student is 
merely learning words, as is vulgarly supposed ; he is, on the contrary, 
learning the art of interpreting and expressing thought. He is learning to 
think accurately, whilst he is learning to express thought accurately. It is 
not with that part of grammar which relates to the construction of language 
to serve as a convenient vehicle of thought, as with the learning of the mere 
forms and inflections of words. This latter is commonly thought a very 
barren and unprofitable study ; and so it is, if we confine our grammatical 
learning to mere forms and inflections. But the construction of language, to 
which these forms and inflections are subservient, is one of the noblest arts 
of which we are possessed, and, if the work of man's intellect, one of its 
greatest, if not its very greatest achievement. It claims the highest admi- 
ration as a display of human ingenuity, and the highest estimation as the 
most valuable of all contrivances. It is worthy of the most careful study, 
as connected with all the operations of thought — with the acquisition, the 
retention, and the communication of all the varied products of man's intel- 
lectual energies. 

§ 100. In closing what we have to say upon modifications consist- 
ing of single words, it may be useful to present a synoptical table of 
all the forms of modification, which we have separately considered, 
classing them in reference to the kind of words they are used to com- 
plete. 

The several kinds of words^ susceptible of modification are : 1st, 
nouns, including pronouns and verbal nouns ; 2d, verbs ; 3d, adjec- 
tives, including verbal adjectives or participles ; and 4th, adverbs. In 
regard to verbal nouns and verbal adjectives, it has been already 



326 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 100. 

observed that they are susceptible of some of the peculiar modifications 
both of nouns and of verbs. To avoid unnecessary repetition, we form 
our table irrespective of this pecuharity of the verbals. We exclude 
them from our consideration in the mean time, that we may not be 
compelled to repeat (to the confusion of the learner) nearly all the 
peculiar complements of the verbs under the head of nouns ; and at 
the close the student may be reminded that these verbal words, because 
of their servmg the function of nouns on the one hand, and expressing 
a common meaning with predicates on the other, take part at least of 
the modifications of both classes of words. 

In the following table, it will be observed that we pursue a different 
order of arrangement, from that adopted in the preceding pages. We 
now present the several modifications in the order of their importance, 
determined chiefly by the comparative frequency of their recurrence 
in discourse. We do not however pledge ourselves to any very scru- 
pulous examination of the question of relative importance Avhere there 
might be a doubt which of two modifications has the preponderance, 
since such nice discrimination is altogether unnecessary to our purposes. 
Our only aim is to give precedence to those forms of modification 
which recur so often, and are so indispensable to complete certain kinds 
of words, that they claim the special regard of the learner. 

We prefix a number to each modification of each class, which, 
together with the letters, ^., F., A.^ and Adv. for noun, verb, adjec- 
tive, and adverb, may serve to denote them in written analyses, or 
references for any other purpose. AYe also annex to each modification 
the number of the section in which it is explained. 

This tabular view, it will be observed, is intended to exhibit those 
modifications only which consist of separate words, and not those 
which are effected by means of a change of the form of the modified 
word, such as plural forms, case forms, tense forms, and comparison 
expressed by inflection., &c. 

I. FoEMs OF Modification of Nonsrs. 

1. Determinative Adjective, § 91. 

2. Descriptive Adjective, § 86. 
8. Genitive Case, § 75. 

4. *Noun and Preposition, §81. 

5. ]!^oun in Apposition, § 69. 

6. Infinitive, § 71. 

7. IlToun Adjectively employed, § 70. 



§ 100.] SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF MODIFICATIONS. 327 

II. FoKMS OF Modification of Yeebs. 

' 1. Adjective Complementary of Neuter Verbs, § 88. 

2. Adverb, § 92. 

8. Objective after Act. and sometimes Pass. Y. § 76. 

4. Objective Infinitive, § 77. 

5. Noun and Preposition, § 81. 

6. Accusative of Time, &c. § 84. 

7. Dative, § 79. 

8. Infinitive of Purpose, § 77. 

9. Noun Complementary of Act. and Pass. Verb, § 78. 

10. Infinitive Complementary of do. § 78. 

11. ISToun Complementary of Neuter Verbs, § 72. 

12. Adj. Complementary of Act. and Pass. Verb, § 89. 

13. Preposition without Noun, § 81 : 28. 

III. FoEMs OF Modification of Adjectives. 



1. Adverb, 


§ 92. 




2. Noun and Preposition, 


§ ^Q. 




3. Infinitive, 


§ 96. 




4. Dative, 


§ 96. 




5. Accusative of time, value, &o. 


§ 96. 




6. Preposition w^itbout Noun, 


§ 96: 


27. 



IV. FoEMS OF Modification of Adveebs. 

1. Adverbial, § 92. 

2. Noun and Preposition, § 96. 

Eemaek. — We might, perhaps, present a fifth class of modifications 
affecting the assertion generally both subject and predicate. (See § 
83.) These would consist of noun and preposition modifications, ac- 
cusatives of time, and circumstantial adverbial modifications. But it 
is perhaps unnecessary to make a distinct class of this kind, since it 
might, after all, be questioned whether it is not equally correct in ana- 
lysis, for example of such a proposition as, " In the beginning God 
created the heaven," to say that what is asserted of the subject " God'''' 
is, that he '' created the heaven''' " in the beginning,'''' as it is to say that 
the whole assertion is modified by the circumstance " In the 



328 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 100. 

SuimAET Desoeiptiox of the Purposes served by the several 
Modifications exhibited above. — It may be serviceable to the learner 
to present a summary description of the chief uses of the forms of mo- 
dit: cation treated in detail in the preceding pages. In describing these 
uses, we must express their character in the fewest words possible. 
Cases will, no doubt, occur in which our description will not apply to 
every particular use of a modification. For minute information, refer- 
ence must be had to the formal explanation of each modification in 
the section indicated in the table. It cannot be expected that in this 
summary we shall mention any but the most prominent use. 

I. Modifications of ISTouns. — (1) The determinative adjective either 
indicates that the noun is employed in a sense determined by other 
means, or serves itself to determine the extent in which the noun or 
name is employed. (See § 158.) 

(2) The descriptive adjective limits a noun or name by a description 
— by expressing some quality or property of the object which the 
noun represents. 

(3) The genitive case limits a noun by expressing the person or 
thing to which it (in some sense) belongs. 

(4) The noun and preposition modification (attached to a noun) 
most generally expresses the same modification as the genitive case. 
Sometimes it indicates other relations besides that of possession. 

(o) The noun in apposition limits the principal noun to an object to 
which both may serve in common as names. 

(6) The infinitive limits a noun by expressing some purpose to which 
it has relation. 

(7) A noun adjectively employed^ as the name indicates, limits the 
noun nearly in the same manner as a descriptive adjective. 

II. Modifications of the Verb. — (1) The adjective complementary 
of the neuter verd, as the name indicates, confip>letes the signification of 
the verb by adjoining a quality or property pertaining to the subject 
of the proposition in the mode asserted by the verb. The same may 
be said of the adjective complementary of the passive verb. 

(2) The adverl limits the verb by a description of the manner of 
the action, or by a circumstance of place, time, &c., attendant on the 
action which it expresses. 

(3) The objective limits the action of the verb to some object which 
it directly regards. 

(4) The objective infinitive limits in the same manner the action of 
the verb to some other action which it directly regards. 

(5) The 7ioun and p>reposition modifiAi,ation limits the action of the 



§ 100.] SUMMARY DESCRIPTION OF MODIFICATIONS. 329 

verb, usually, by giving it a particular direction in reference to some 
person or object. 

(6) Accusatives of time^ value, measure, &c., express a limitation to 
a precise time, value, &c. 

(7) The dative limits or modifies the verb by expressing the person 
in reference to whom or for whom the action is performed, or what 
is called the personal ohject. 

(8) The infinitive of purpose limits by expressing the purpose or de- 
sign of the action of the verb. 

(9) The noun complementary of the active andpassive vert limits or 
completes it by expressing what the passive or direct object (in the ac- 
tive form of assertion) is made or lecomes, or is conceived to be made 
or become, through the action of the verb. 

(10) The infinitive complementary of the active and passive vert ex- 
presses what the passive or direct object (in the active form of asser- 
tion) is made to do through the action of the verb. 

(11) The noun complementary of the neuter vert expresses what the 
subject of the proposition is, tecomes, &c., in the manner expressed by 
the verb.* 

(12) The adjective complementary of active and passive verts ex- 
presses a quality or property of which the passive otject becomes pos- 
sessed in the manner expressed by the verb. 

(13) The preposition (used alone without a noun) gives some direc- 
tion to the action of the verb, generally in reference to place. 

III. Modifications of the Adjectives. — (1) The advert limits the 
meaning of the adjective usually by indicating the degree of intensity 
of the quality expressed. 

(2) The notm and preposition modification, as in the case of verbs, 
usually gives a particular direction of the quality expressed by the 
adjective in reference to the person or object indicated by the noun 
accompanying the preposition. 



* This might also stand for a summary description of the uoun com- 
plementary of the passive verb, which we have included with the nou7i com- 
plementary of the active verb. We have done the same with the adjective 
complementary of the passive verb. These modifications of the passive verb 
may be brought within the description of the modification of the active verb 
by adverting to the fact that the passive object becomes the subject of the 
passive form. They come within the description of the modifications of the 
neuter verb by simply treating the jjassive as a compound form of the verb, 
without any further accommodation. 



330 STRrCTTEE OF LAXGUAG-E. [§ 100. 

(3) The infinitive limits the adjective br expressing some action to 
■vrhicii it has reference. 

(•i) The dative limits the meaning of the adjectiye by expressing 
the person or object to which in the particular case it has refer- 
ence. 

(5) The accusathe of time, xalv.e. (fcc.. hmits a few adjectives, which 
express time, value, dimension, Arc. by indicating the precise time. 
value, measure, &:c. 

(6) The preposition ^without a noun) is employed, especially with 
verbal adjectives, to give a partictilar dh-ection to their meaning, as in 
the case of verbs. 

MoDEFiCATioxs OF Adveebs. — (1) The adverl) usually modifies ad- 
verbs, as it modifies adjectives, by indicating the degree of intensity 
of the quahty which they express in common with the adjective from 
which they are formed. 

(2) The noun and 'preposition modification,^ as in the case of ad- 
jectives, gives a particular direction of what the adverb expresses in 
reference to the person or object expressed by the noun. 

That the learner may have the whole apparatus necessary for the 
analysis of propositions (such as we have hitherto considered, involv- 
ing only modifications consisting of simple words without accessory 
propositions), presented in a summary and connected manner, we sub- 
joiu the following rules already presented in the preceding pages. 

RrxES I. AXD IT. — We may caU the first and second, Eules of Con- 
cord. TTe shah add others, when we come to treat of the connection 
of propositions. 

Rule I. — The verb in a proposition must always agree iu number 
and person with the subject noun. 

EuEE IT. — Collective nouns, when the collection of individuals which 
they represent is regarded simply as a collective unity — " as a whole" 
— have verbs of the singular form ; but when reference is made in 
the assertion to plurality ia the subject — "when the collective ex- 
presses many as individuals" — ^the verb is generally of the plural form. 
This may be regarded as an exception to Eule I. For examples, &zc. 
see §56 : (7 a). 

ErxE. — In the noun and irreposition modification, the noun or 
pronoun is in the accusative case. See § 81 : 32. 

TTe here subjoin a statement of the order which we recommend 
to be pursued in the analysis of propositions. 

Oedee of Axaltsis of Peopositioxs. — 1. Point out the verb — ^the 
assertive word — telling of what kind it is, whether neuter or aotim^ 



§ 100.] ORDER OF ANALYSIS OF PROPOSITIONS. 331 

and if active, whether of the active or passive form ; then mode^ tense^ 
number^ iperson. 

2. Point out the subject noun telling of what kind it is, and its 
number^ gender^ person ; and repeat the rule of concord between 
verb and subject noun. These form the foundation or basis of the 
proposition. 

3. We turn next to the modifications ; and first to those of the 
subject noun^ if it has any. Designate each by name in the order of 
their connection in thought, telling to how much of the subject they 
apply, whether to the bare subject noun alone, or to the subject noun 
accompanied by more intimate modifications. The determinatives 
often apply to the subject noun as already modified by a descriptive 
adjective^ a genitive case^ a noun and preposition or an infinitive. Care 
must be taken throughout to distinguish between modifications which 
apply directly to the principal word (which in this case is the subject 
noun) either alone or after being partially modified, and those which 
apply directly to other modifying words, and only indirectly (through 
their influence on them) to the principal word. 

4z. Having shown how the subject is completed, turn lastly to the 
modifications of that part of the predicate expressed by the verb. 
These are to be designated in the same manner in the order of their 
connection with the verb, and with the same discrimination between 
those which directly modify the verb, and those which applj^ to ano- 
ther modification ; and those which apply to the verb alone, and those 
which apply to it as already aflected by other more intimate modifi- 
cations. The learner will remember that the adjective complementary 
and the noun complementary both of verbs neuter and active (and 
passive too, if we consider the auxiliary and participle together as a 
compound form) have (when they occur) the precedence, on account 
of their close connection, of all other complements. The preposition 
used alone has also tlie nearest connection with the verbs which ad- 
mit it. jMext come objective modifications (whether common names 
or infinitives), and next datives, when the verb has such ; next ad- 
verbs of manner, Nouns with prepositions and accusatives of time, 
&c. come last. These give little trouble, as in our language they are 
generally arranged when they come after the verb, in the order of their 
connection, and usually apply to so much of the predicate as precedes 
them. Sometimes, as we have seen, circumstantial modifications are 
placed in the beginning of the proposition before both subject noun 
and verb. Such modifications may usually be treated last, as most 
remote in order of sense from the verb, and generally applying to all 



332 STRUCTURE OF LAITGUAGE. [§ 100. 

the predicate (exclusive of themselves), if not to the whole proposi- 
tion. 

All this will be best understood by attention to the models already 
presented. 

There is not much to be said in reference to the punctuation of 
single propositions having only one subject noun and one verb. Since 
the great purpose of punctuation (or interpunction) is to separate 
propositions from one another for the purpose of securing greater 
perspicuity, a point is seldom employed within such propositions, and 
what point shall come at the close of a proposition depends on its 
connection with the rest of the discourse, and cannot with propriety 
be settled at this stage of our inquiries. 

The only instance in which commas are introduced in the course 
of a simple proposition has been already considered (see § 92 : 42), viz.: 
that in which an adverb, or a noun and preposition expressing a circum- 
stance, that might be separated from the proposition without destroying 
its general sense, is distinguished by interpunction. The circumstan- 
tial expression thus separated from the proposition by punctuation (or 
rather in this case interpunction)^ is to be regarded as parenthetic — as 
tJiroicn into the proposition to express something additional to that 
which is absolutely essential to the communication of the thought. 
Commas, here and on many other occasions, serve nearly the same 
purpose as parenthetic marks. (See Appendix on Punctuation.) 

The pupil can now be exercised in analyzing the propositions in any 
piece of discourse, omitting, in all compound and connected proposi- 
tions, the conjunctive and connecting words. 

The teacher may ask the papil to tell the principal use of each modification in order, to 

repeat the rales, and then to describe fully the order of analysis. This description ought to 
be given after some practice on the examples. 



CHAPTER IX. 



OF COMPOUND PEOPOSITIONS. 

§ 101. (1) We pass now from propositions of which all the 
parts and all the modifications consist of words, not of propositions 
— as regards matter, consist of the names of conceptions, not of 
assertions — to those which involve in their structure a proposition, 
either as subject of the principal proposition, or as a modification of 
one of its members. 

(2) To express this distinction among propositions with greater 
brevity, we may call that species which we have hitherto considered, 
having words only for their members and modifications, simple 
propositions, and those which we are now about to consider, in- 
volving a proposition as a member of the main assertion, or one or 
more propositions as modifications of subject or predicate, compound 
propositions. 

Note. — We use the term cmnpound here as it is used by the grammarians 
in speaking of words. A compound word means a word formed of two or 
more words united to constitute a single sign ; so a compound proposition, 
as we use the expression, means two or more propositions united to express 
a single assertion. When two or more propositions which express assertions 
independent of each other are connected together, we do not consider such 
connected propositions as co^wpound propositions. We may, for distinction's 
sake, call these when we afterwards come to consider them connected or 
combined propositions. 

By using the term simple, we do not mean to imply that the forms of 
modification in simple propositions are more simple than those in compound 
propositions. We do not mean to say that the use of single words to modify 
nouns, verbs, <fec. is more ancient than the use of propositions for the same 
pxu'pose ; nor that modification by means of propositions is an extension and 

§ 101. (1) To what subject do we next pass ? 

(2) State the distinction between simple and compound propositions. 



334 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 101. 

refinement of gTammatical construction. On the contrary, we believe that 
some, at least, of the raodifications of simple propositions ali-eadj considered 
are a refinement on the employment of propositions for the same pm-pose. 
This v/ill be seen when we come to treat of certain kinds of accessory pro- 
positions, especially of the adjective accessory proposition. Again, we do 
not consider that these two classes of propositions are separated by any very 
exact line of demarcation. By abbreviating the accessory proposition, a 
compound proposition often assumes the form of a simple proposition, so that 
the two forms pass into one another by an easy transition. As regards 
sense, it is often optional with the writer or speaker to employ either a sim- 
ple proposition with modifications, such as v/e have treated in the preceding 
pages, or a compound proposition involving an accessory proposition as its 
subject or as a modification. The use of the compound proposition having 
an accessory for modification, may sometimes be more consistent with sim- 
plicity of expression than the more abbreviated and often more artificial 
mode of adopting single-word complements. The distinction then between 
simple and compound propositions regards chiefly the forms of modification 
employed in each respectively. When all the complements consist of single 
words or phrases, we call the proposition simple ; when some of the comple- 
ments are accessory propositions, we call the whole proposition compound, 
as consisting of more than one proposition and more than one verb, though 
expressing only one direct assertion of the speaker. 

(3) In the analysis of compound propositions, we shall, in con- 
formity with the mode of expression employed in treating of the 
complements in simple propositions, call the proposition which 
contains the direct asseition of the speaker, the principal pro- 
position, and that which performs a subordinate part (constituting 
the subject of the principal^ or a complement of some part of 
it), we shall call the accessory or subordinate proposition. 

(4) Remaek. — The learner will please bear in mind that, when Tve 
speak of a principal and a subordinate or accessory projyosition^ we 
refer to the form of language— to the grammatical arrangement of 
propositions — not to the relative logical importance of the matter 
which they express. The proposition, which, grammatically considered, 
holds the rank of subordinate or accessory _ (as we shall generally 
hereafter call it), may be, and often really is, the most important part 
of the compound proposition, as regards matter. To illustrate by 



(3) State the distinctlou between a principal and an accessory proposition. 

(4) Repeat the substance of the remark, and illustrate it by an example. 



§ 102.] ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS. 335 

examples : They say our foes are coming ; The sertiant announced that 
the house teas on Jire. In both these compound propositions the first 
proposition is grammatically considered the principal containing the 
direct assertion of the speaker, but the hitter proposition in both cases 
undoubtedly contains the most important part of the matter, and is 
therefore, logically considered, the most important. 

§ 102. Accessory Propositions. — (1) A knowledge of the 
several kinds of accessory propositions and of their functions is in- 
dispensable to the satisfactory analysis of compound propositions. 
To aid the learner in acquiring this important knowledge is the task 
which we now propose. 

iN'oTE. — If we should perform it imperfectly, we might plead as our 
apology the intrinsic difficulty of the undertaking, and the small degree of 
assistance which we can derive from the labors of our predecessors, especially 
from those who have written on English grammar. We do not mean to 
say that all parts of the subject before us have been entirely neglected by 
writers on universal grammar ; but so little has been done by our more phi- 
losophical grammarians to simplify and to give systematic arrangement to the 
doctrine of the connection of propositions in discourse, so little to render it 
readily intelligible and capable of being used in popular elementary educa- 
tion, that the authors of our English school gi'ammars, left without authori- 
tative guidance, have evaded all regular discussion of this subject, and con- 
tented themoelves with giving instruction, which, with the exception of a 
few particulars, applies exclusively to simple propositions. It would be 
much easier for us to follow their example, if we could do so in consistency 
with our plan of analysis. But if we were, in pursuing our method, to 
neglect altogether the consideration, especially of accessory propositions and 
their functions in language, the deficiency would be so conspicuous as to 
awaken the attention of even the least observant inquirer. We are in treat- 
ing this subject much more indebted to the German than to our own gram- 
marians, as regards matter. Our method is essentially different from theirs. 

Classification of Accessory Propositions. — (2) Some of 
the German grammarians have arranged accessory propositions 
under three classes, viz. : substantive accessory propositions^ adjective 
accessory propositions^ and adverbial accessory j^roposittons, because 
they perform functions in discourse resembling one or other of these 



§ 102. (1) What is indispensable to the analysis of compound propositions? 
(2) Name the three classes in which the German gi-ammarians have arranged accessory 
propositions; and tell the reason of this arrangement, 



336 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 102. 

three classes of words, substantives, adjectives, or adverbs. In our treat- 
ment of accessory propositions, we shall find it convenient to follow 
the order of this ingenious classification. We shall have abundant 
opportunity as we proceed, of perceiving that it is a well-founded 
and natural (not a mere capricious) classification. 

(3) "We may here remark that there is also a striking resemblance 
between the functions performed by those words which connect ac- 
cessorywith principal propositions and the prepositions which serve as 
intermediary words between a completing and a principal word. In- 
deed several of the prepositions in our list, § 81 : 7, are used before 
accessory propositions, as well as before nouns, and with exactly the 
same significance, and to perform the same function ; the diiference 
being that in the one case they give what is expressed by the principal 
word a direction^ &c., in reference to what is expressed by a single 
word (a noun)^ in the other, in reference to what is expressed by an 
accessory proposition. For example, in the assertions, James arrived 
BEFORE we, and James arrived before / returned^ the word 'before has 
obviously the same meaning and performs the same function, only in 
the first example it is the intermediate of arrived and the pronoun me^ 
in the last, it is the interinediate of arrived and the accessory proposi- 
tion / returned. 

Of Conjunctions. — (4) The words employed to connect subordi- 
nate with principal propositions, and also those employed for the 
purpose of connecting co-ordinate or independent propositions (after- 
wards to be considered) are called, from the function which they 
perform, conjunctions. They conjoin or connect propositions. (5) 
Of the words 'employed to connect propositions, some are used 
exclusively for this purpose; some, on the contrary, like before 
used in the example above, are employed for other purposes, and 
only occasionally as conjunctions. (6) The fii-st class, for the sake 
of distinction, we may call conjunctions, the latter, conjunctive words, 
or we may connect the term conjunctive with the original class 
name of these latter words, and call them conjunctive pronouns, 
conjunctive adverbs, and conjunctive pre2:>ositions : for conjunctive 

(3) Repeat the substance of the remark about the words used in connecting accessory 
propositions ; and illustrate by examples. 

(4) What name is given to the class of words employed in connecting propositions ? 
State the reason for giving them this name. (5) Show how words used for this purpose of 
connection differ. (6) Mention the means bj^ which this difference may be marked. (7) 



§ 103.] SUBSTANTIVE ACCESSORY USED AS SUBJECT. SS'T 

words of all these kinds occur. (7) Again, besides this, there is a 
difference in the functions which these words perform when con- 
junctively used. Some serve exclusively a conjunctive purpose, that 
is, to connect propositions and to indicate some relation subsisting 
between them. Others, besides this conjunctive function, perform, 
at the same time, the usual function of the class of words to which 
they properly belong, generally in the accessory proposition, some- 
times both in the accessory and principal proposition. Of these 
facts we shall find abundant examples as the different forms of 
accessory propositions come under review. What we have now 
said may suffice to bring the Conjunctions — (8) one of the great 
classes into which grammarians divide words — directly under the 
student's notice. (9) Along with the form of each accessor^/, we 
shall consider the conjunction or conjunctive word, or the class of 
these words which serve to connect it Avith the principal proposition. 
(Sometimes we shall find that no conjunctive sign is needed.) In 
the same way we shall present the diflferent classes of conjunctions 
which connect co-ordinate propositions, when we come to consider 
the different purposes for which such propositions are connected. 
This we think the most useful mode of treating this class of words. 

§ 103. Substantive Accessory Propositions. — (1) We now 
return to the accessory propositions, and direct our attention first to 
the class which we have designated as substantive accessor!/ pro- 
2Wsitions, because they perform some of the peculiar functions of 
substantives. 

Accessory Proposition used as Subject. — (2) The purpose 
first in importance for which a substantive accessory proposition is 
employed, is one to which we have already adverted in the preceding 
pages (see § 20 : 6-1), namely, to serve as subject of the principal 
proposition. (3) This species of accessory proposition is very generally 
preceded by the determinative word that. (4) That, when thus em- 



Describe a farther difference in their functions when conjunctively used. (8) What do the 
conjunctions form ? (9) In what mode do we propose to treat conjunctions and conjunctive 
words ? 

§ 103. (1) What is the name of the class of accessories which we first proceed to con- 
sider ? And why is this name given to them ? 

(2J What purpose does the first mentioned species of substantive accessory proposition 
serve? (3) By what word is this species of accessory generally preceded ? (4) What is 



338 STRUCTURE Or LANGUAGE. [§103. 

ployed, is called by grammarians a conjunction, though in fact it 
performs precisely the same function as when they call it a demon- 
strative pronoun (determinative adjective according to our no- 
tnenclatm-e) ; only it is placed in the one case before a noun, and 
in the other (which we are now considering) before a proposition 
performing for the time the function usually performed by a noun. 
(5) We subjoin examples for the purpose of illustration. That 
the government of our desires is essential to the enjoyment of true 
liberty^ is a truth never to he forgotten hy the citzens of free states. 
Here if we put the question (as suggested in § 15 : 3) what " is a 
truth never to be forgotten ?" the answer will exhibit the true 
subject of the proposition ; namely, " The government of our desires 
is essential to the enjoyment of true liberty." Second example, " That 
industrious habits are essential to success in life^ ought to be con- 
tinually inculcated on the young. AYhat " ought to be continually 
inculcated on the young ?" Answer, the proposition, the judgment 
of the mind, the truth : — " Industrious habits are essential to success 
in life." This truth, for the sake of greater emphasis, is marked 
by the determinative that. Third example, That Julius Ccesar 
invaded Britain, is a well known historical fact. 

[(6) In the analysis of any piece of discourse consisting (as almost 
always happens) of an intermixture of simple, compound, and com- 
bined propositions, the first question for the learner to settle is, how 
many distinct propositions are contained in the portion proposed at 
one time for consideration. (This portion should always contain at 
least one complete assertion. Usually, it consists of what is called a 
sentence.) If the portion proposed contains more than one proposi- 
tion, the next question is, are the propositions combined co-ordinate, or 
are they compound propositions ? If they are only combined propositions 
they are to be treated, and the nature of their connection explained, 
according to the instructions to be given hereafter for the analysis of 
such propositions. (See § 146: 25 ; § 14T : 12.) If the sentence con- 
tains one or more compound propositions, the next step in analysis is 
to point out the verb, or assertive word in the principal proposition, 



said in reference to that thus employed ? (5) Illustrate the use of the accessory employed 
as subject of the principal proposition hy examples. 

[(6) Eepeat the substance of the directions given hoAV to conduct the analysis of a piece 
of discourse.] 



§ 103.] SUBSTANTIVE ACCESSORY AS SUBJECT. 339 

and then the subject, as in treating a simple proposition. In the pre- 
sent instance this subject is the accessor^/ proposition ; and in this case we 
proceed next to the separate analysis of the subject proposition, treat- 
ing the word that as a determinative applied to the Avhole proposition 
considered as a single compound subject. Or, if we please, we may 
call it here a conjunctive determinative, since it (as now understood) 
indicates the conjunction of the propositions, at the same time that it 
exercises its usual determinative force. Then we proceed to the ana- 
lysis of the verb and other parts of the predicate of the principal pro- 
position. 

When the accessory proposition serves as a modification of the sub- 
ject or predicate of the principal proposition, or of one of the com- 
plements of the subject or predicate, it is to be treated, like the modi- 
fications already described in the order which it occupies in the sense, 
and it may itself either be analyzed in its place, or its function and class 
only may be mentioned, and the analj'^sis postponed till the principal pro- 
position is finished. If, like a circumstantial modification, it seems to 
afifect rather the whole p7'incipal proposition, than anyone of its mem- 
bers in particular, it may be considered last, after the analysis of the 
principal proposition is completed.] 

(7) Compound propositions of this kind are often expressed in our 
language in a somewhat different form. For example, the compound 
propositions above introduced may be presented in the following form : 
It is a truth never to te forgotten hy the citizens of free states^ that the 
government of our desires^ &c. It ought to l)e constantly inculcated on 
the young ^ that industrious hadits are essential to success in life. It is 
a well hnown historical fact., that Julius Gcesar invaded Britain. Jn 
the compound propositions thus presented, the real subjects are still, 
as before, the accessory propositions commencing with that. (8) The 
word IT serves as a substitute subject to the principal proposition, till 
the real subject is developed in the accessory proposition. (9) This 
contrivance enables us to arrange the predicate — the important part — 
of the principal proposition first, and thus give emphasis to the asser- 
tion by presenting it before we exhibit the subject to which it applies. 
(10) This arrangement serves to draw the hearer's attention more 
powerfully to what we assert, by keeping him in suspense as to the 
subject to which it applies. (11) The latter form of this class of com- 

(T) What fact is stated in No. 7 ? Illustrate by examples. (8) What is said of the func- 
tion performed by it in the compound proposition when arranged as in these examples ? 
(9) What are we enabled to effect by this substitution of it for the real subject ? (10) What 
effect has this arrangement on the hearer? (11) Which form of the compound proposition 
is usually preferred by writers? 



340 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 103. 

pound propositions — we mean the form eommencixig with it for sub- 
stitute subject of the principal proposition — is generally preferred by 
writers, and occurs much more frequently than the other form in onr 
language. 

jS'oTE. — The word it is often employed in the same representative manner 
when the subject of the main proposition is an infinitive serving as a con- 
tracted accessory. (See § 142.) We subjoin a few examples of this con- 
struction, which, hke the preceding, very often occurs in our language. " It 
is good for us to think, that this man too was our brother." "What is good 
for us? Answer, "To tlhnk that this man too was our brother," =That we 
should think, that this man too was our brother, is good for us. "It is for 
you to decide, whether this freedom shall yet survive, or be covered with a 
funeral pall," &c. "To decide," <fcc. "is for you" = That you should decide, 
is for you — is your part or province. " It is not necessaiy to await your 
determination." To await your determination is not necessary = That we 
should await your determination is not necessary. In all such constructions 
it serves to represent for the moment the infinitive with its accompaniments, 
which is the real subject. 

"We subjoin the following examples for exercise in analysis. 

" It is through inward health that we enjoy all outward things." 
" It was an especial precaution that none but sweet-scented evergreens 
and flowers should be employed." " It is greatly to be regretted that 
a custom so trtily elegant and touching has disappeared from general 
use." 

(12) In the analysis of compound propositions of this form, the 
principal proposition may be first analyzed, and, when we come to 
mention the representative or substitute subject it, we must teU what 
purpose it serves, and refer to the accessory which it represents. (13) 
Some regard the accessory proposition in compounds of this form as a 
proposition in apposition with the pronoun it. But this method does 
not lead to an explanation of the construction so fall and clear ; besides, 
it is not, as we think, perfectly correct to say that either a proposition 
or a word is in apposition with that which really serves as its repre- 
sentative. Such extension of the term a^jposition is not to be de- 
fended. 

(14) It is only as subject — never as predicate — that a proposition 
can become a constituent member of another proposition. (15) We 



(12) Eepeat what is said of the analysis of this form of compound proposition ? (13) How 
do some grammarians regard the accessory in this form of proposition ? State ohjections. 

(14) Is an accessory ever employed as predicate of a proposition ? (15) Assign the rea- 
Bon. 



§ 104.] ACCESSORY MODIFICATIONS. 341 

see the reason that an accessory cannot serve as predicate in the fact, 
that it cannot represent the assertive word, which always, according to 
our views, forms an essential, indeed, the leading part of every predicate. 
(See §§ 13, 46.) A verb alone, not any other word, or combination of 
words, can perform the peculiar function of expressing the leadmg 
part of the predicate assertively. The verb of the accessory proposi- 
tion, leaving its own subject, cannot serve at the same time as verb of 
the principal proposition. 

(16) Punctuation. — In this construction, the principal and acces- 
sory are usually separated by a comma. 

ExEEOisES I., II., &c. — A given number of compound propositions 
of the first of the above described forms. A given number of the 
second form. 

§ 104. (1) We next come to treat of substantive accessory pro- 
positions employed for the purpose of modification. (2) We thus 
pass again to the subject of modification; for all the accessories 
which we have now to consider — the adjective and adverbial, as 
well as the substantive, serve to modify either the subject or 
predicate, or a modification of the subject or predicate of the 
principal proposition, or, like circumstantial adverbs, and circum- 
stantial nouns with prepositions, to modify the whole principal 
proposition. 

(3) These modifying accessories constitute an important part of the 
structure of language ; and yet, with the exception of what regards 
the adjective accessory, they have received very little attention, so far 
as we know, from our English grammarians. 

(4) In treating this part of our subject, we derive great advantage 
(and the student will participate largely with us in this advantage) 
from the method pursued in the treatment of the complements or mo- 
difications of simple propositions ; for the complements or modifications 
which consist of accessory propositions have generally a close analogy 
to those which consist of separate words. 

(5) In passing under review these modifying accessory pro- 
positions we shall pursue an order suggested by the classification of 

(16) What is said, of punctuation in reference to this kind of compound propositions ? 
§ 104 (1) Mention the subject to be next considered. (2) Eepeat the remark in refer- 
ence to all the accessory propositions which remain to be treated. 

(3) What are the modifying accessories said to constitute, and how have they been re- 
garded by English grammarians ? 

(4) From what do we derive advantage in treating these modifying accessories ? 

(5) What is said of the order to be piirsued in treating the modifying accessories ? 



342 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 105. 

accessories already given, and this will correspond nearly with the 
order observed in treating the complements of simple propositions. 

(6) 1st. We shall notice the accessoiy propositions of which the 
functions bear an analogy to the functions of nouns employed, in 
modification. 

2d. Those which bear an analogy to the adjective modifi- 
cations. 

3d. Those which bear an analogy to adverbial or noun with 
preposition modifications. 

4th. And lastly, we shall consider certain accessoiy propositions 
which perform peculiar functions which cannot be performed by 
single words or phrases. 

(7) This order of arrangement, and constant reference to the com- 
plements already treated, which each accessory most resembles in func- 
tion, and with which it in some cases interchanges place, will much 
assist the learner in follov/ing our observations on modifying accessoiy 
frojioutions. 

SUBSTAXTRTE ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS EMPLOTTID FOR THE 
PURPOSE OF MODIFICATION. 

§ 105. (1) Here we shall mention first the substantive accessory 
proposition employed in aijposition with a noun for the same 
purpose as the noun in apposition complement. We have already 
noticed this kind of modifvino- accessory in treatino- of the noun in 
apposition, § 69, and have given an example. (2) We subjoin 
additional examples. "For the promise, that he should he the heir 
of the ivorld^ was not to Abraham." " And they made proclamation 
throughout Judah and Jerusalem unto all the children of the 
captivity, that they should gather themselves together unto Jeru- 
salem^'' In the first example, the accessory proposition "That he 
should be the heir of the world" stands in apposition with the 
noun " promise," serdng to explain or expand the conception which 
it expresses ; and, in like manner in the second example, the ac- 
cessory " That they should gather themselves together," &c. stands 
in apposition with the noun " proclamation." 

(6) state at length the order to be pursued. 

(7) What -will assist the learner in following our observations on these accessories ? 

§ 105. (1) Describe the modifj-ing accessory first considered. (2) Illustrate the use of 
this accessory by examplee. 



§ 106.] ACCESSORY COMPLEMENTARY OF TO BE. 343 

(3) Wouns, which imply what may be expressed more specially in 
the form of a proposition, generally admit of this proposition in appo- 
sition to explain or expand them. (4) Such nouns are, apology^ 'bar- 
gain^ 'beliefs conclusion^ commandment^ contract^ conviction^ decision^ 
declaration^ design^ doctrine^ injunction^ judgment^ opinio7i^ precept^ 
proclamation^ promise^ proposition^ purpose^ resolution^ sentence^ threat^ 
trut\ (fee. For example. The opinion^ beliefs conviction^ &c., that 
THE SOUL IS IMMORTAL, has Iccn almost universally entertained. The 
command^ precept^ &c, of Christ addressed to his immediate disciples^ 
THAT THEY SHOULD LOYE ONE ANOTHER, is binding on all Ms professed 
followers. This form of modification, we think, is not very often em- 
ployed. 

(5) Punctuation. — This accessory, like the noun in apposition, is 
separated from the rest of the compound proposition by commas. 

Exercise I., II., &c. — Form compound propositions similar to those 
now given, using the words above enumerated for subject nouns. 

§ 106. Accessory Proposition complementary of the verb 
To Be. — (1) An accessory proposition is often used like a noun 
complementary of a verb. In this way it is used, we believe, 
exclusively with the verb to he. (2) Example, " Another cause is, 
that the grave is more immediately in sight of the survivors.^'' Here, 
"That the grave is more immediately in sight of the survivors," 
serves to complete the verb is. Compare with the example the 
following form of expression : Another cause is the frequent visitation 
of the grave hy the survivors. It is plain that the function performed 
in the example by the accessory proposition is the same as that 
here performed by the noun visitation, and its accompanying modi- 
fications. 

(8) "We may readily form principal propositions having the nouns 
enumerated in the preceding section for their subjects, which principal 
propositions will take accessories of this description to modify the verb 
is. AVe subjoin examples which may be used as an exercise in analysis. 
"My sentence is, that we trouble not them," &c. The proclamation is, 



(3) State the description of nouns which take such modifying propositions. (4) Enumer- 
ate some of these nouns. ' 

§ 106. (1) Name the accessory next mentioned, and tell with Avhat verb it is used. 
(2) Illustrate by an example, and mention the form of expression with which the example 
is compared. 

(8) Describe the mode of forming propositions to illustrate the use of this accessory. 



344 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 106. 

that tJiey sliould gatTier fhe-msehes together. Our opinion^ lelief^ con- 
clusion^ judgment.^ &c. is, that different forms of government suit different 
stages of civilization. Eis sentence^ decision, command, threat, injunction, 
&c. was, that the culprit should ie p)U7iished. Your contract, dargain, 
&c. was, that you would supply us with materials. Our intention, 
design,purpose, resolution, &c. is, tJiat the worlc shall he soon accomplished. 
The precept of Christ is, tJiat his followers should love one another. The 
truth is, that different forms of polity suit nations in different stages of 
civilization. (4) In many of these examples, the more usual construction 
would, no doubt, be to employ, instead of an accessory proposition, the 
infinitive verbal noun. (5) The infinitive with its accompaniments 
may be considered in such cases an abbreviated method of expressing 
an accessory proposition. (See § 142.) Thus, His sentence, decision, 
design, command, &c. is to punish the culprits. Our intention, design, 
purpose, &c. is to finish the icorTc. The precept of Christ is to love one 
another. 

(6) Eemaek. — These compound propositions may aU, without much 
change of sense, be converted into the form (considered above § 103) 
which has the accessory for subject of the principal proposition. Thus, 
It is my sentence, that we trouble not tJiem among the Gentiles, &c. It 
is our opinion, belief, &c. that different forms of government, &c. It was 
his sentence, that the culprit should be punished. It is our intention, 
design, &c. that the worh should be finished speedily.^ 

(7) PTmoTUATioN. — This accessory proposition is separated by a 
comma from the principal. 



* Those who consider the vei'b to he as performing solely the func- 
tion of copula — the assertive function, without expressing any part of the 
predicate — would say, in consistency with then' views, that what we call 
the complementary accessory proposition, is the predicate of the compound 
proposition. For example, in the compound proposition. The decision of the 
besieging general was, that the citizens must surrender at discretion; if was 
is regarded as simply and solely copula, the accessory That the citizens must 
surrender at discretion is manifestly the predicate, or that which is asserted. 
But we, on the contrary, holding that was itself predicates Being (in a past 
time), consider that the complete predicate here is Being (in a past time) 
that the citizens must surrender at discretion, makius; That the citizens must 



(4) Mention a form of construction more usual in some cases than that in the examples. 

(5) How may the infinitive here be regarded ? Eepeat examples. 

(6) Give the substance of the remark ; and illustrate it by examples. 

(7) What is said of the punctuation of this construction ? 



§ 10*7.] ACCESSORY USED AS OBJECTIVE MODIFICATION. 345 

Exercises, I., II., &c. — Construct compound propositions with 
complementary accessories ; exhibiting at the same time the variations 
of form of which they may be susceptible without material change of 
meaning — infinitives instead of accessory propositions, and compound 
propositions with an accessory for subject. The construction of asser- 
tions in the three forms, when all are accordant with propriety of 
expression, will improve the pupil's facilities in composition, by making 
him better acquainted with the resources which such variations of con- 
struction afford us, for the purpose of selecting appropriate and 
harmonious expression. 

§ 107. Substantive Accessory Proposition used as Ob- 
jective Modification. — (1) Perhaps the most common use of 
what we call substantive accessory propositions is to serve as 
objective modification, or complement direct of active verbs. (2) 
The accessory used in this way is sometimes preceded by the con- 
junctive determinative tha% but it often stands without any 
conjunctive word. 

(3) This construction occurs so frequently in our language (and 
indeed in all languages), that we might multiply examples at pleasure. 
(4) But as the use of this kind of accessory is so like the use of the 
objective modification, and so easily understood, a few examples will 
be sujSScient for our purpose. (5) / told Mm that a courier had ar- 
rived ; or / told him a courier had arrived. The learner will observe 
that " him " is here the dative modification (see § 79), and " A courier 
had arrived^'*'' either with or without the determinative that^ is the 
objective modification. Put the question, what did I tell? The an- 
swer given will be the objective modification — " A courier had arriv- 
ed." (See § 76 : 5.) He said John was wise^ or 7ie said that Jo7m was 
wise. I hnow he has sent., or that he has sent it. 

(6) Sometimes instead of an accessory proposition we substitute 
the infinitive as an abbreviation. (7) This infinitive takes before it 



surrender at discretion a complement of bei7ig. To this view we make our 
analysis conform. (See §§ 13 and 46.) 



§ 107. (1) Which is perhaps the most common use of the substantive accessory ? (2) By 
what conjunctive word is this accessory sometimes preceded ? 

(3) Repeat remark about the frequent recurrence of this construction. (4) What rea- 
sons are assigned for exhibiting few examples ? (5) Illustrate by examples. (6) What is 
sometimes substituted for this form of accessory ? (7) What do such infinitives take before 



346 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 10*7. 

the accusative of the noun or pronoun which is the subject in 
the equivalent accessory proposition. (8) For example, instead of / 
Tcnow that he is toise, we can say IJcnow him to he wise; instead of 
/ helieve that he is learned^ we may say / Relieve him to de learned. 
(9) A small number of verbs in our language admits this infinitive 
preceded by an accusative instead of an objective accessory. This is a 
favorite construction in Latin, and the infinitives with accusatives be- 
fore them of that language can most generally be expressed in our 
language only by accessory propositions. 

(10) Sometimes the accessory in this kind of compound proposi- 
tion is interrogative and commences with an interrogative word. Ex- 
ample, / do not Tcnow whether it is true. Many persons say, but with 
less propriety, I do not Icnow if it is true. Do you Tcnaw whether it is 
true ? (11) In this example, the whole compound proposition is of the 
interrogative form. In the preceding examples the accessory alone is 
interrogative, and the principal proposition, and, therefore, the com- 
pound proposition as a whole is assertive. / do not haow who it is. 
I cannot tell what you mean. Can you tell what lie means f I can- 
not tell who it is. ^ I have ascertained where he is. Have they as- 
certained where I a/in f John hnows well how many there are. 



* Instances of the false construction of such compound interrogative 
propositions occur frequently, even among leai-ned authors ; especially in 
translations from Latin and Greek. "We may illustrate this and thus guard 
the learner against such mistakes by the following example from the trans- 
lation of the New Testament. " But whom say ye that I am ?" Matt, 16 : 
15 ; Mark 8 : 29 ; Luke 9 : 20. An adherence to the universally acknow- 
ledged principles of construction demands instead of this, But who say ye 
that I aiin? Who belongs strictly in the construction to the accessory propo- 
sition, and should be the nominative after the verb, the same case as the 
subject noun I, since it serves as a noun complementary to the verb. In the 
usual language of the grammarians the verb to he has the same case after it 
which goes before it. This rule is violated in the example above, in all the 
three gospels, by our translators. Tyndale and Cranmer have given the cor- 
rect grammatical construction in Luke, but the false English occurs in their 
translations of Matthew and Mark. The versions of Geneva and Rheims, like 
the authorized, employ the false construction in all the gospels. All these 
learned men were misled, no doubt, by the use of the infinitive and accusa- 
tive in the original Greek, not adverting to the fact that they had, very 

them ? (8) Illustrate by examples. (9) Is this a common constraction in our language ? 
And what remark is made in reference to the Latin language ? 

(10) Eepeat what is said of interrogative accessories, and illustrate by examples. (11) 



§ 108.] ACCESSORY OF PURPOSE. 34*7 

(12) Verbals are of course susceptible of this species of modifica- 
tion as well as their kindred verbs. (See §76 : 32-41.) Examples, 
Hearing that you had obtained news of that matter^ I have called 
upon you. Knowing that he is a good man^ I have recommended him 
to you. " The world would then have the means of Tcnowing how 
many they are ; who they are ; and of what value their opinions may 
be," &c.— Burke. 

(13) PuNOTiJATioN. — The objective accessory is not usually separa- 
ted by interpunction ; though the usage in this matter is not, we be- 
lieve, perfectly consistent, when the word that precedes the accessory. 
"When that is not introduced, the comma, we think, is never used. 

Exercises I. II. &c. — Construct compound propositions with ob- 
jective accessory modifications. Construct a number of propositions 
in twoforms, first with an accessory for objective, and second with 
an infinitive and accusative preceding it. The following among other 
verbs admit this latter construction and may be employed in construct- 
ing these propositions of double form. Acknowledge^ admit^ believe^ 
Jcnow^ jjrove., suppose^ suspect^ thin\ wa,rrant. 

S 108. Substantive Accessory Proposition expressive of 
PURPOSE. — A proposition is often employed to modify a verb in the 
same way as we employ the infinitive of purpose. (See § 7*7.) (2) 
This species of accessory proposition is preceded by the conjunctive 
that, which cannot here be omitted, as in the case of the objective 
accessory proposition. (3) We can express the connection of such 
accessories with the principal proposition more emphatically by 
using the words in order that before them, instead of the simple 
that. (4) Examples, I eat, that I may live ; or, I eat, in order that 



properly, in accommodation to the English idiom, adopted the accessory 
proposition instead of the infinitive in the Greek construction. In trans- 
lating the passage in Matthew, Wiclif has followed closely the Greek and Latin 
idiom " Whom seien ye me to be ?" Here " 'whom" is correctly used, as the 
accuative me precedes to be ; but in translating the same words in the 
other gospels, he falls into the same mistake with the other translators. 



Repeat the remarks in reference to the preceding example. (12) Eepeat the remark about 
verbals. 

(13) What is said of punctuation ? 

§ 108. (1) What accessory is next considered ? (2) By what word is it always preceded ? 
(3) In what other more emphatic way is this accessory sometimes connected ? (4) Give 
examples. 



348 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 109. 

/ may live. James labors, that he may obtain bread ; or, James 
labors, in order that he may obtain bread. This boy studies dili- 
gently, that he may become learned and useful=in order that he may 
become &c. 

(5) The infinitive of purpose is often employed instead of this species 
of accessory ; thus, He labors to obtain bread. This is a less formal 
and less emphatic mode of expressing the thought. (6) The infinitive 
of purpose may be considered as a substitute, or an abbreviated form 
of the accessory of purpose. (7) We must take care not to confound 
this species of accessory proposition with the objective accessory, from 
which it is entirely distinct. (8) In this modification the determinative 
THAT is indispensable, and is always more emphatic, since it stands 
instead of, and represents est oedee that ; and this circumstance may 
serve to distinguish it from the objective accessory. 

(9) The remark made in the preceding section in reference to 
verbals, applies equally here. 

(10) Punctuation. — This accessory is generally separated by a 
comma, but usage in this case is not perfectly settled. 

§ 109. Substantive Accessory Modification of Adjectiyes. 
— (1) A substantive accessory, or rather an accessory analogous to 
the noun with a preposition, is frequently used to modify a certain 
description of adjectives. For example, " I am not worthy that 
thou shouldest come under my roof." 

(2) The adjectives susceptible of this species of modification are 
generally such as express a condition of mental feeling, and the 
accessory preceded by that conjunctive indicates the object which this 
condition of mind regards. (3) We may enumerate among these adjec- 
tives conscious, unconscious, heedful, heedless, ignorant, mindful, 
unmindful, thoughtful, unthoughtful, unthinhing. Examples, This 
man, conscious that he has acted shamefully, avoids his former com- 
panions. The other, unconscious that he has done wrong, exhibits the 
aspect of innocence. (5) In constructing compound propositions of this 
kind, the adjective and its modifying accessory are very often first 

(5) What modification is often employed instead of this accessory ? (6) Repeat the re- 
marlc about the infiniti\e of pm-pose. (7) Repeat the caution. (8) How may it be distin- 
guished from the objective accessory ? (9) What is said about verbals ? (10) Punctuation ? 

§ 109. (1) Describe the accessory which modifies adjectives. 

(2) Describe the adjectives which are susceptible of this modification. (3) Enumerate 
BOme of them. (4) Illustrate by examples. (5) Repeat the remark in reference to the con- 



§ 109.] ACCESSORY MODIFYING- ADJECTIVES. 349 

disposed of in tbe arrangement ; then follows the principal proposition, 
the adjective modified by the accessory serving to complete its subject 
noun. (6) Examples : Mindful that the duration of life is uncertain^ 
this good man studies to l)e always prepared for death. Heedful that 
d.angers surrounded him, he pursued his march with redoubled caution. 
Ignorant that we were his l)est friends., he treated us as his worst foes. 
(7) This kind of substantive accessory proposition is, as we have already 
intimated, analogous to the noun and preposition used in modifying 
adjectives. (8) In fact, when the adjectives enumerated above take 
word-modifications (as opposed to accessory proposition-modifications), 
it is a noun and preposition which they take. For example conscious 
of innocence., mindful offamrs., heedless of danger., &c. 

(9) There are some other similar adjectives which take after them 
an accessory of the same form to indicate, not the object which the 
condition of mind expressed by them regards, but the occasion or 
cause of this condition of mind. (10) Such are anxious., grateful., 
ungrateful., thanTcful., ashamed., &c. Thus, Anxious that his friend 
should not fail in his efforts., he dewted much of his time to his service. 
"The humblest peasant is anxious that some little respect may be paid 
to his remains." Grateful., or thanJcful that he was now rescued from 
danger., he resohed to recompense his deliverer. (11) With most of 
these last adjectives iecau^se may be used as the conjunctive word, and 
the accessories which modify them come perhaps rather within the 
class which we call adverbial accessories, since they express the cir- 
cumstance of causality. 

(12) Punctuation. — ISTo comma is, we believe, ever interposed 
between the adjective and this kind of accessory. 

ExEECiSES I., II., &c. — Construct compound propositions containing 
adjectives modified by accessories of the kind described. 

We need add nothing here to what has been already said about the 
order in which the pupil should proceed in the analysis of compound 
propositions embraciug modifying accessories, save to remind him that 
the accessory should be analyzed in immediate connection with the 
principal word which it modifies. 



struction of this kind of compound propositions. (6) Illustrate by examples. (7) To which 
of the forms of modification already ti-eated is this modifying accessory analogous ? (8) 
What fact is stated as a proof of this ? Give examples. 

(9) State what is said of a similar class of adjectives. (10) Enumerate some of this class. 
And illustrate by examples. (11) Repeat the remark made in reference to this last class 
of adjectives and their accessories. 

(12) Punctuation? 



350 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 110. 

§ 110. Of Adjective Accessory Propositions. — (1) We next 
proceed to consider the adjective accessory proposition. (2) This 
kind of accessory is generally connected with the word which it 
modifies by what are commonly called the relative, but by some 
with greater propriety, the conjunctive pronouns. (3) These words 
perform some of the ordinary functions of a noun in the accessory 
proposition, and, at the same time, indicate the connection or con- 
junction between it and the word in the principal proposition which 
it serves to complete. (4) The name relative has been given to 
these pronouns because they relate or have reference to another 
word which they represent.* (5) This word is usually called 
the antecedent, because it goes before. (6) This antecedent word 
which the conjunctive pronoun represents, is the word which the 
adjective accessory proposition modifies or completes. Sometimes a 
proposition is represented by a conjunctive pronoun, or, in other 
words, serves as antecedent. " The bill was rejected by the Lords, 
which excited no small degree of jealousy," &c. 

(Y) The words chiefly employed as simple conjunctive pronouns 
are who, which, and that. (8) Who has case forms exactly as the 
interrogative who ; namely, a genitive case ivhose, and dative 
and accusative whom. (9) The declension of this word may be 
exhibited as follows : 

Nominative, Who. 
Genitive, Whose. 



■^ The circumstance that they relate, or have reference to a noun, is 
not peculiar to this class of pronouns ; but is equally characteristic of other 
pronouns, especially of those of the third person. The name relative pro- 
nouns is not therefore so appropriate, so well adapted to distinguish these 
"words, as the name conjunctive pro7iouns given to them by some of the 
French grammarians. This latter name fully indicates the double function 
of this class of words, viz, : that of pronoun, or representative of a noun, and 
that of connection or conjunction. 



§ 110. (1) What kind of accessory is next considered ? (2) What name is given to the 
words which connect this accessory with the word which it modifies ? (3) Describe the 
functions of conjunctive pronouns. (4) Why have these words been called relative pro- 
nouns ? (5) What is the word which the conjunctive pronoun represents called ? (6) What 
is said of the antecedent ? Is it always a noun ? 

(7) Enumerate the simple conjunctive pronouns. (8) What forms has who f (9) Ee- 



§ 110.] CONJUNCTIVE, OR RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 351 

Dative^ Whom. 

Accusative, Whom. 

(10) These forms are used to represent both singular and plural 
nouns, in the same manner as the case forms of the interrogative 
who. (See § 98.) 

(11) Which has no variation for either case or number. Wliose 
is sometimes employed as its genitive, borrowed from who. Or 
perhaps we should say that the distinction between who and which 
is not maintained in the genitive. (12) It is scarcely correct to say 
that whose is the genitive of which as well as of who. It is man- 
ifestly formed from who, not from which. (13) That is also 
invariable, performing the function of nominative, dative, and 
accusative, and having no genitive form. (14) The only genitive 
form among the three simple conjunctive pronouns is whose, and the 
use of this as a genitive of which — that is, the use of it when any 
other than a rational being or person is referred to, seems to be 
rather avoided by fastidious writers. (5) We have, however, the 
most respectable authority for using it in referring to things not 
personal, that is, not capable of taking part in discourse. We have 
a well known example in the commencement of the Paradise Lost. 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste," &c. 
" Nebuchadnezzar, the king, made an image of gold, whose 
height was threescore cubits," &c. Dan. 3: 1. 

Leaving whose out of the account, the distinction observed in the 
present use of these pronouns may be described as follows : (16) Who 
and its accusative whom are employed as conjunctive pronouns to re- 
present persons — those who being endowed with reason and speech can 
take a part in human discourse — individually and plurally (but not 
collectively) considered. (17) They are also employed to represent the 
names of animals when personified, as in fables ; and sometimes per- 



peat the declension of who. (10) Eepeat what is said of the singular and plural use of the 
forms of who. 

(11) What is said of which in reference to case forms ? (12) Is it correct to call whose 
the genitive of which ? (13) Has j;/(a# case forms? (14) Eepeat the remark about whose. 
(15) Have we authority for using whose in speaking of things not personal ? Give examples. 

(16) What is said of the employment of ^oho and lohom f (IT) Do they ever represent 



352 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§110. 

sonified things and abstractions. (18) WJiicli is noio used only to 
v&^vQiQntnonpersonals^ that is, irrational animals and things inanimate, 

(19) It is also used to represent collective nouns (though signifying 
assemblages of persons)^ when they imply unity. The collective body, 
considered as a unit, though made up of persons, is not regarded as a 
ferson. Examples : The paett ^sigb. first elevated Mm to power lias since 
denounced Mm. The aemt, which he led to victory ^ was strongly attached 
to Mm. (20) Which is also used to represent nouns signifying persons, 
when only the word, or name, or character is referred to, not the 
person. Examples : You call him an oppeessoe of the poor and the 
weak.^ WHICH is the worst name you could give Mm. " That was the 
work of Herod., which is but another name for cruelty." 

(21) In the earlier usage of our language, icMch was employed to 
represent persons as well as nonpersonald. (22) Thus it is employed in 
the Lord's Prayer in the authorized version, and in the versions of 
Tyndale and Cranmer, and in those published at Geneva and at 
Rheims. Our /a^Aer -z^AicZi art in heaven. (23) The distinction estab- 
lished in the present usage of our language between loho and which 
contributes to perspicuity. IVho and w^hom always by their very form 
indicate that the reference is to the names of persons., and which that 
the reference is to nonpersoncds — to animals or inanimate things. 

(24) That is used to represent the names both of persons and things. 
It may be considered as the tmiversal relative or conjunctive pronoun., 
filling the place of both who and which. (25) But as the use of who or 
whicTt gives greater clearness to the reference, the one limiting it to 
perso7is^ the other to nonpersonals^ the employment of these words is 
to be preferred, except where their frequent recurrence, or some 
awkwardness of expression connected with their use renders the 
employment of the less definite th.at preferable. {See additional olser- 
vations on the pronouns who, which, that, § 159.) 

[ The grammarians have enumerated certain cases in which the use 
of that is to be preferred to the use of who or which. We give the 
substance of what they have said, partly in the language of Dr. Crombie 
and Dr. Bullions. 



the names of animals or things ? (18) How is which note used ? (19) Does which ever re - 
present nouns signifying persons ? Give examples. (20) In what other case is it so nsed ? 
Give examples. 

(21) What is said of the use of icho and uliich in the earlier period of om- language ? 
(22) Mention the example. (23) Is the distinction now observed between wlw and which 
useful ? 

(24r) What is said of that? (25) What reason for preferring the use otwTio or which in 
general to the use of that as a conjunctive pronoun ? 



§ 111.] DESCRIPTIVE AND DETERMINATIVE ACCESSORIES. 353 

(26) 1st. That is used after icTio or wMoIi (either conjunctive or 
interrogative) has been abeady employed in the sentence to avoid a 
disagreeable repetition of the same sound. But this change from who 
or which to that ought not to be admitted in a series of accessory pro- 
positions modifying the same noun ; the same antecedent ought to be 
always represented in such a series by the same pronoun. Thus it 
would be improper to say, The man tib.a.t fears Ood^ and who loves his 
neighhor. We ought to employ either who in both cases, or that in 
both cases. 

2d, That'is usually employed to represent nouns modified by 
adjectives in the superlative degree ; as, " He is the wisest man that 
ever lived." Also to represent nouns modified by the words same^ all, 
'Very ; and generally to represent those modified by the determinative 
adjectives any, no, some. 

8d. When the conjunctive is to represent two antecedent nouns, 
the one signifying persons and the other nonpersonals, that is emj^loyed; 
as " the man and the horse that passed us." 

4th. Tliat is sometimes employed, when it is doubtful whether who 
or which is the proper word ; as, " The little child that was placed 
in the midst.] 

§ 111. We now return to the consideration of the adjective ac- 
cessory proposition, and the various functions, besides that of 
connecting, which the conjunctive words perform in it. It will be 
more convenient, after illustrating the use of these chief conjunctive 
pronouns, to consider the other words which serve purposes some- 
what similar. 

(1) Adjective accessory propositions perform functions similar 
both to descriptive and determinative adjectives. (2) That is to 
say, in other words, propositions of this kind are employed either to 
describe the object expressed by the noun which they modify, or to 
render the object more determinate — or, still in other words, either 
to express an attribute belonging to the object, or to indicate the 
manner in which the speaker chooses to limit the modified name 
{See § 91 : 11, e^ seq.) 

(3) We subjoin examples of both kinds of accessories for the purpose 



[(26) Mention the first case in which the use of that conjunctive is to be preferred. The 
second case, &c.] 

§ 111, (1) What two kinds of functions do adjective accessories perform ? (2) Express 
these functions in different ways. (3) Illustrate these functions by examples. 



354 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 111. 

of illustration. The man vho is always idle is a durden to himself, and 
useless to the community. The accessory proposition " who is alicays idle*'' 
is here descriptive of " the man." The toy who staistds foremost is the 
son of our friend. Here who stands foremost is an accessory employed not 
to describe, but to determine. It expresses no attribute belonging to the 
boy, but simply indicates to the hearer what boy the speaker intends. 
[ (4) AYe might divide descri^jtive accessory propositions into two 
classes, one including those which describe an object by predicating 
one of its inherent qualities, another, those which describe the object by 
predicating of it a particular action. (•) The first class corresponds 
■with, the descrijjtite adjective, the latter with the participle employed 
to modify nouns. (6) The first class is formed by the employment of 
the verb to be with a descriptive adjective, the second by the use of the 
other verbs, or of the verb to le with a participle. (7) The man who 
IS idle is a hurden to himself is an example of the first class ; The man 
WHO coxstaxtlt labors to do good deserves universal approbation, 
is an example of the second. (8) But it is scarcely necessary in 
grammatical analysis to attend to a distinction like this, which has re- 
ference to the subject matter rather than to iliQform of the accessory 
proposition. (9) We notice it here merely to show the close analogy 
subsisting between this whole class of accefl Bori ^a and the different 
kinds of adjective modifications.*] 



* That the function which this kind of accessory performs is the same 
with that which the adjective performs, may be shown more directly by 
selecting cases in which an accessory proposition and a corresponding adjec- 
tive form equivalent, or nearly equivalent modifications. For example : The 
steward who is faithj-'UL deserves commendation, and, The faithful steward 
deserves commendation are nearly equivalent expressions. The first of these 
modes of expression is more formal, more stiff, and, when it is wished to call 
special attention to the description, more emphatic. This species of modifica- 
tion (by an accessory) likely had place in language before adjectives were 
employed attributively. "We suspect that the adjective modification is a refine- 
ment on the adjective accessory modification — a mere abbreviation of the 
accessory, always implying a suppressed predication. In the present usage 
of language, when we have a descriptive adjective to express an attribute, 
we generally employ it attributively — without the formahty of predication ; 
except T\"hen it is necessary for some reason to give pecuhar force to the 

[(4) Into what classes might adjective accessories be divided? (5) Tell with what each 
class corresponds. (6) Tell how each class is formed. (7) Illxxstrate by examples. (8; Is 
It necessary to give attention to this distinction in grammatical analysis ? (9) Why have 
we noticed it in this place ?] 



§ 111.] ACCESSORIES WITH PRONOUN FOR SUBJECT. 355 

We have given examples of accessories with the conjunctwe who for 
subject ; we now subjoin examples of the use of loJiich and that for the 
same purpose. (10) " That landscape which fills the traveller loith rap- 
ture^ is regarded with indifference by him who sees it every day from 
his window." " The sweetest sounds that art can combine^ lose much 
of their effect upon an ear that (which) is perpetually listening to me- 
lody." " The most costly luxuries that can load the T)oard of opulence^ 
are but bread to him who makes them his daily meal." "The brilliant 
lustres that (better which) illuminate the house of public entertainment^ 
are no more than sober daylight to him icho passes all his evenings 
there." (11) The accessory propositions intended for illustration we 
have marked by the use of italics. 

(12) Remark. — The learner may observe that the author has em- 
ployed that on two occasions, with great propriety, to represent an 
antecedent modified by a superlative ; " The sweetest sounds that^'' and 
" The most costly luxuries thaty In other places he has employed that 
where which was perhaps to be preferred. 

(13) The accessory propositions, which we have marTced above, all 
serve to modify the subject noun of the principal proposition. (14) 
But an accessory of this kind may be used to modify a noun which is 
itself employed in a subordinate function, as a complement of the sub- 
ject or predicate of the principal proposition. (15) Of this we have 
examples in the passages introduced above as examples. The accesso- 
ries, " Who sees it every day from his window," " That is perpetually 
listening to melody," " Who makes them his daily meal," and, " Who 
passes all his evenings there," all modify noun with preposition com- 
plements ; namely, the first, third and fourth him preceded by a pre- 
position, and the second an ear preceded also by a preposition. (17) In 
a word, the adjective accessory proposition, like the adjective, may be 
employed to modify a noun, in whatever function that noun may be 
employed, whether in a principal or in an accessory proposition. (18) It 



modification, and then we can employ the accessory. But when we have to 
describe a person, or any object by an action, we are generally obliged to 
have recourse to an adjective accessory proposition. 



(10) Give examples of accessories with toMcJi and tlmt for their subject nouns. (11) 
How is the part of each passage above intended for ilkistration marked ? (12) Kepeat the 
substance of the remark. 

(13) For what purpose do the accessories in italics serve ? (14) Are accessories of this 
kind used for other purposes? And what purposes ? (15) Illustrate by examples from the 
passages qaoted already. (17; Sum up the purposes for which the adjective accessory may 
be employed. (18) Repeat the substance of the caution. 



356 STEUCTmE of laxguage. [§ 112 

is, lio:^ever, contrary to the principles of good taste — destructive botli 
of perspicuity and harmony — to employ these accessories too lavishly 
in the modification of nouns used in accessory propositions ; especially 
in accessory propositions connected themselves to their principal by 
a conjunctive pronoun. 

ExEECisEs I., II., &c. — "Write compound propositions of the above 
form. 

§ 112. Accessories ix which the Coxjuxctr^e Proxoux 
PERFORMS A MoDiFYixG FuxcTiGx. — (l) Hitherto we have called 
attention only to the cases in which the conjunctive pronoun serves 
as subject noun of the accessory proposition. (2) We have now to 
observe that conjunctive pronouns perform not only the function of 
subject noun, but also most of the other functions of nouns in the 
accessory adjective proposition. (3) They perform the several 
fimctions of objective modification^ of genitive or j^ossessive modi- 
fixation^ of noun and. preposition modification^ and sometimes, 
perhaps, of dative modification. 

"We caU attention first to examples of the conjunctive or relative 
pronoun (as it is most commonly called) employed as objective modi- 
fication to the verb in the accessory proposition. (■!) I am much 
pleased, icith the gentleman WHo:sr you introduced. The boolz which you 
bought is superior to mine. Or, The booTcr that you bought is superior 
to mine. " They follow an adventurer ichorn they fear, and obey a 
power which they hate; — we serve a monarch ichom we love," — {we 
serve) " a God whom we adore." 

Bf.maek. — (o) In this form of the adjective accessory proposition, 
the objective conjunctive pronoun is often suppr^sed, especially in col- 
loquial discom'se. (This suppression is more common in our language 
than in any other which we know.) (6) Thus we may say, The booTc 
you bought yesterday is beautiful., The mamce saw this morning., in- 
stead of The book which you bought., and The man whom loe saw., &c. 
(7) In proceeding to the analysis of such accessory propositions, it is 
proper that the suppressed conjunctive accusative should be first sup- 
plied. (8) The suppression of a conjunctive pronoun, when it serves 

§ 112. (1) To what use of the conjunctive pronoun has onr attention been confined ? (2) 
Does the pronoun perform other functions in accessory propositions ? (3) Enumerate the 
modifying functions which it perfonns. 

(4) Illustrate the ohjective use of the pronoun by examples. 

(5) Eepeat the substance of the remark, (6) Illustrate the fact stated in the remark by- 
examples. (7) What is recommended in the analysis of accessory propositions ? (S) WTiat is 



§ 112.] CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN AS MODIFICATION. 357 

any other function, except that of objective, is, we believe, very rare, 
and not to be imitated.* 

(9) The suppression of the objective pronoun, ought to be very 
cautiously used, even in familiar style. This suppression is still more 
rarely proper in elevated style. It can never, with propriety, take 
place, except when the word which the pronoun represents — the an- 
tecedent — comes immediately before the accessory proposition. (10) 
If modifying words follow the antecedent and disconnect it from the 
accessory proposition, the conjunctive pronoun must be expressed. 
(11) Thus, we could not, without gross impropriety, suppress the con- 
junctive whom in a compound proposition like the following : The man 
distinguished ty his foppish dress and swaggering manner whom we 
met last night is Mr. A. JSTor would it be consistent with perspicuity 
to drop which in the following assertion : The pictures of the great 

masters which we saw yesterday, have been purchased by Mr. B- . 

The same remark applies to the conjunctive whom in the two following 
examples : " Which is Christ in you the hope of glory ; whom we 
preach," &c. " I speak here of such as retain the feelings of humanity; 
whom misfortunes have softened," &c. See below § 117, the observa- 
tions respecting the collocation of the adjective accessory proposition. 

Exercises I., II., &c. — Form compound propositions with accesso- 
ries having the conjunctive pronoun as objective modification. 

(12) N"ext, we give examples of the conjunctive pronoun employed 
as genitive case modification in the accessory proposition. We have 
six examples in the following hnes : — 

" Happy and worthiest of esteem are those 
Whose words are bonds, whose oaths are oracles, 
Whose love sincere, icJiose thoughts immaculate, 
WJiose tears pure messengers, sent from the heart, 
Whose heart as far from fraud as heaven from earth." 



* Mr. Gr. Brown has adduced the following examples of the omission of 
the conjunctive pronoun as subject of the accessory: "This is the worst 
thing — could happen." 

" In this 'tis God — directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 
The place of the pronoun is marked by a dash ( — ). Mr. Brown justly re- 
marks that "the omission of the relative in the nominative ease, is inelegant." 



said of the suppression of conjunctive pronouns performing otlier functions ? (9) What 
farther remark about the suppression of pronouns ? (10) Mention a case in which the con- 
iunctive pronoun must be expressed. (11) Ilkistrate this by examples. 

(12) Give examples of the conjunctive pronoun serviug as genitive inodification. 



358 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 112. 

" A religion icJiose origin is divine." " For there stood by me 
this niglit the angel of God, whose I am, and whom I serve." 
(13) There is in this last example a peculiar suppression of the noun com- 
plementary of the verb am — the word to which tcA(?se serves as genitive 
modification. T\xQ\YOT(i servant is imjjliecl in whose^ and to be supplied^ 
when we analyze the accessory proposition. 

Exercises I., II., &c. — Give a number of compound propositions 
with accessories in which the conjunctive pronoun serves as genitive 
modification. 

(14) The conjunctive pronoun is employed with a preposition as 
noun and preposition modification, sometimes of nouns and adjectives, 
and very often of verbs. (15) Examples: The adventurers oe whom: 
he was chiefs were surprised. The party of which he is leader^ cannot 
succeed. In these examples " q/' -zz^/wm " modifies the noun "cMe/*" 
and " of which'''' the noun " leader.'''' (16) It is usual to employ the 
pronoun and preposition, not the genitive case modification, when the 
noun modified is separated from the pronoun by other parts of the 
accessory proposition. Thus the nouns chief and leader above, being 
nouns co7npleraentary of the verbs in the respective accessory proposi- 
tions, take their place naturally after the verb, and so are separated 
fi'om the pronoun which occupies the first place in the accessory. 
(17) But when the modified noun comes immediately after the con- 
junctive pronoun, as, for instance, when it is subject noun of the ac- 
cessory proposition, the genitive tchose is used, not the pronoun and 
preposition, especially when the pronoun represents a person. This 
is exemplified above under the conjunctive pronoun employed as geni- 
tive modification. 

Exercise. — Similar to the last. 

(18) We give the foUov^ing as examples of the conjunctive pro- 
noun and preposition employed to modify an adjective in the accesso- 
ry proposition. " Withhold not good from them to whom it is due.'''' 
" Of whom the world was not worthy.'''' " That which is luxury to 
him to whom it is new., is none to those to whom it \q familiar.'*'' 

Exercise. — Furnish propositions of this form. 

(19) Examples of conjunctive pronouns and prepositions modifying 

(13) Eepeatthe remark in reference to the last example. 

(14) What is said of the employment of the conjunctive pronoun with a preposition ? 
(15) Give examples of the pronoun and preposition modifying a noun. (16) When is it 
usual to employ the pronoun and preposition ? Illustrate by the examples given above. 
(IT) When do we employ the genitive v:7wse ? 

(15) Give examples of the pronoun and preposition used to modify adjectives. 
(19) Give examples of the pronoun and preposition modifying the verb of the \ 



§ 113.] EXPLICATIVE OR EPITHETIC ACCESSORIES. 359 

the verb in the accessory proposition occur in such numbers that it is 
almost superfluous to present any in this place. " Thejfor whom we 
Idbor^'''' &c. The world iisr which we sojourist is not our home. The 
Being by whom we are protected, in whom we live, is eternal. 

(20) That as a relative is, we believe, never used with a preposi- 
tion l)efore it ; perhaps, because it might be confounded with that., 
the determinative substantively employed with a preposition preceding. 
When a preposition is to precede, we must employ whom to represent 
persons and which to represent nonpersonals. When the arrangement 
is changed so that the preposition is separated from the pronoun, we 
can employ that, as, " He is the man, that you were acquainted with. 
That alone without a preposition sometimes serves the purpose of a 
noun and preposition complement, in other words, is equivalent to 
which with a preposition; thus, Se cannot iehave in the way that 
you l>ehave,=JIe cannot iehave in the way in which you iehave. 

Exercises. — A given number of compound propositions to be con- 
structed having accessories in which the verb is modified by the con- 
junctive pronoun and a preposition. 

(21) Of the conjunctive pronoun employed as a dative modification 
in the accessory proposition it is more difiicult to find satisfactory ex- 
amples. We can readily find examples in which the pronoun is, we 
believe, really a dative, as, The master whom you serve ; the laws 
which we odey. But the pronoun thus used is now recognised as an 
accusative and the verbs as active verbs ; though this recognition can- 
not well be reconciled with the history of the use of these verbs in 
our language. {See §79, note pp. 319, 220.) We have an example in 
Ezehiel 31 : 2 of the interrogative lohom used as dative modification 
of the adjective lilce : " whom art thou like in thy greatness?" In the 
eighteenth verse of the same chapter we find " to whom art thou like 
in thy glory ?" &c. Such expressions as tlie man whom we refused ad- 
mittance., are perhaps unsanctioned by good usage. We scarcely ven- 
ture to use a dative except immediately after the verb, and the con- 
junctive pronoun cannot occup}'- that place in an accessory proposition, 
as we shall see when we come to treat of the collocation of the con- 
junctive word. 

§ 113. Of Explicative, or Epithetio Adjective Accessory Propo- 
sitions. — (1) The adjective accessory propositions presented in our 



(20) Repeat the substance of what is said of the conjunctive tJiat employed as noun and 
preposition modification. 

(21) Repeat the substance of what is said of the conjunctive pronoun employed as dative 
modification in the accessory. 

§ 113. (1) Repeat the introductory remark. (2) Illustrate it hy an example. 



360 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 113. 

examples so far ser^e as essential modifications of the antecedent 
noun. They all express something indispensably necessary to the enun- 
ciation of the thought declared in the main assertion of the compound 
proposition. (2) Thus, when we say The youth who studies diligently 
deserves praise, the accessory proposition, icho studies diligently, is an 
essential part of the subject of the principal proposition. It is not 
youth, but the youth described in the accessory, that deserves praise. 
(3) But an accessory proposition is sometimes employed as merely 
explicative of the antecedent, similarly to an adjective employed as a 
mere epithet and not essential to the assertion in which it is used. We 
may first, for the sake of perspicuity, and because we have not alluded 
to this matter in treating of the descriptive adjective modification, give 
an example of the adjective employed as a mere epithet. (4) Socrates 
THE WISE, THE GOOD, fell a victim to the prejudices of his fellow-citizens ; 
or, The wise and good Socrates fell a victim ; or, Wise and good 
Socrates fell, &c. Here wise and good are not essential to render the 
subject capable of having the predicate in the proposition asserted of 
it : they merely serve as epithets. (5) In fact, an adjective thus em- 
ployed serves to add something as an appendage to a thought beyond 
what is mainly expressed in the proposition. Thus wise and good serve 
in the example above to express, in an abridged form, two thoughts in 
reference to the subject Socrates, distinct from that formally asserted ; 
yet these thoughts are so thrown in as to modify in some manner the 
principal assertion, though not essential to it. They may aggravate 
the guilt of putting Socrates to death, or they may heighten the regret 
felt that such a character should have perished as he did, according to 
the purpose of the speaker or writer, as exhibited in the general tenor 
of the discourse. (6) Adjectives thus employed to indicate something 
without which the proposition would stand grammatically complete 
and logically true, are called epithets, that is, (attributes) superadded 
or put to, because they express something beyond what is absolutely 
requisite to the completion of the assertion. (V) All these epithets 
may be regarded as expressing a kind of parenthetic thoughts — 
thoughts introduced within a construction intended mainly and 
formally to express another and distinct thought. (8) So of what 
has been named the explicative accessory proposition; (it might with 

(3) In what other way are adjective accessories sometimes employed ? (4) Give an ex- 
ample of an adjective used as an epithet. (5) What purpose does an adjective thus em- 
ployed serve ? Illustrate by the example already given. (6) Tell what is said in reference 
to the name given to adjectives thus used. (7) How may all these epithets be regarded? 
(8) Apply what has been said to the explicatim or epithetic accessory, (9) What would 



§ 113.], EXPLICATIVE, OR EPITHETIC ACCESSORIES. 361 

great propriety be called the epitlietic accessory ;) it is thrown paren- 
thetically within another proposition in the form, but without the 
force, of a modifying accessory. (9) In fact, if regarded strictly as a 
completing accessory, it would often change, or injure, or destroy the 
sense of the compound proposition. (10) Let us illustrate this by an 
example, " Man, that is torn of a woman^ is of few days." Here the 
accessory, " That is born of a woman," is merely explicative or epithetic. 
It expresses a thought of the subject man^ having connection with the 
general train or drift of the discourse, that is to say, with the repre- 
sentation of man's frailty and transiency. But it does not express an 
essential complement of the word man as subject of the proposition 
" Man is of few days." In this assertion the word man is used unmo- 
dified in its unlimited sense, as including all mankind. It is not limited 
or restricted by the words " That is born of a woman," as by a true 
modifying accessory proposition essential to the sense of the principal 
proposition. To limit the word man by this accessory we must place 
before it the sign which in our language indicates limitation or deter- 
minativeness, and thus we change, or, rather, we destroy the sense. 
In fact, by treating this as an essential modifying accessory, we obtain a 
compound proposition which implies an absurdity. Both The man that 
is lorn of a woman is of few days ; and The men that are torn of women 
are of few days^ are absurd assertions ; since they imply, according to 
the laws of our language, that only some men are so born, and only 
such are of few days. This is manifestly not the meaning of the words 
as they stand in the original quotation. There a well-known truth is 
expressed in a manner perfectly accordant with the established laws of 
language. 

(11) We may here remark that in the written language this kind 
of explicative or epithetic proposition is distinguished by the punctu- 
ation. The ordinary modifying accessory proposition connected 
with the antecedent by a conjunctive pronoun, being essential to 
complete it, is not separated from the principal proposition by 
commas in the generality of modern printed books, whereas the ex- 
plicative accessory proposition is, or, ought to le^ separated by commas 
from the principal proposition. (See Appendix on Punctuation, § 160.) 

(12) In a case like the example above given, the accessory is also 
indicated, as we have incidentally noticed, by the fact that no 

often be the consequence if the explicative' accessory should he considered as a completing 
accessory ? (10) Eepeat the example, and the substance of the illustration. 

(11) Describe the manner in which the completing and explicative accessory are distin- 
guished by punctuation in written discourse. 

(12) Eepeat the substance of what is said of another way of distinguishing these two 



362 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§118. 

determinative is placed before the word man^ which ought to be done 
if man were hmited or restricted by the accessory proposition. A 
determinative — generally either a or tlie^ sometimes, for greater 
emphasis, that^ is placed before all nouns which admit of a determi- 
native in accordance with the usage of language, when these nouns 
are stHctly limited by an adjective accessory proposition. This 
circumstance, however, will not serve to distinguish the essentially 
modifying accessory from the explicative accessory. "When a common 
concrete noun (the class chiefly susceptible of determinative modifi- 
cation) is not preceded by a determinative, we may safely consider the 
accessory as merely explicative or epithetic, but when such nouns are 
preceded by a determinative, we cannot conclude that the accessory is 
not merely explicative, because the noun may be rendered determi- 
nate by something else, though not by the accessory, and may on this 
account be accompanied by the determinative sign. This mode of 
indication would also fail us whenever the word to which the accessory 
is attached happens to be one of that class which does not take a 
determinative, (because, naturally and necessarily, always determi- 
nate,) for example, proper names^ generally in our language abstract 
nouns^ SLRdi personal lyronouns. (13) The nature of the accessory must 
therefore be determined by the sense. No rule for doing this, founded 
on the form of language, is of universal application. (14) If fixed rules 
of punctuation were adopted and consistent!}^ followed, these two 
kinds of accessories might always be distinguished in written language. 

We subjoin some examples of the explicative accessory for the 
purpose of clearer illustration. 

(15) " My lord of Hereford here, whom you call Tcing^ 
Is a foul traitor to proud Hereford's king. 

""Whom you call king," is in this place to be regarded as o^pa- 
rentTietic explicative proposition. The sense of the principal proposition 
is not dependent on it. It was not alone "as called king" by his 
followers, that Hereford was a traitor. His treason was not limited 
to this circumstance, nor is it as displayed or indicated by this 
circumstance that the speaker here asserts his treason. He rather 
asserts him to be a traitor in despite of this circumstance. (16) In 
the following compound proposition, "God, who sitteth above, and 
presides in high authority over all worlds, is mindful of man," 

kinds of accessories. (13) How must the nature of the accessory be determined ? (14) 
What is said of a means of determining it in written language ? 

(15) Eepeat the example here given and the remarks made upon it. (16) Illustrate the 
distinction between completing and explicative accessories by a second example. 



§ 113.] EXPLICATIVE OR EPITHETIC ACCESSORIES. 363 

the two adjective accessory propositions, " who sitteth above, and 
presides in high authority over all worlds," may be considered, if 
we please, as merely explicative or epithetic. But in the proposition 
written as Dr. Chalmers has in fact written it, " The God who 
sitteth above," &c. these accessories become essential parts of the 
complete subject of the principal proposition,* 

(17) It must be admitted that the lines of demarcation between the 
completing and the epithetic accessory (and the same, we believe, may 
be said of the completing and epithetic adjective) are not always per- 
fectly clear. To illustrate, by an example : — 

" O pity, great Father of Light ! (then I cried) 
Thy creature, who fain would not wander from Thee ! " 
It might, perhaps, be a question here to which class of accessories we 
should refer the proposition, " Who fain would not wander from 
Thee !" It seems to us, that it is rather to be referred to the class of 
epithetic accessories. The same remark may be made of the accessories 
In the following compound proposition : — 

" 'Twas thus by the glare of false science betrayed, 
That leads^ to 'bewilder ; and dazzles^ to 'blind^'" &c. 

(18) The distinction which we have been considering may be thought 
logical rather than grammatical^ since in both kinds of accessory the 

form is exactly the same. We admit that, except in the use or omission 
of the determinatives, when the antecedent is a word susceptible of 
that limitation which a determinative indicates, the distinction is not 
exhibited by any thing in the structure of our language. But the 
distinction deserves the notice of the grammarian on account of the im- 
portant variation of meaning sometimes involved, and it demands his 
notice in strict grammatical analysis, as frequently giving occasion 
either for the employment or the suppression of determinatives. A 
similar distinction may be traced in other accessories besides the ad- 
jective accessories. 

It may be prescribed as an exercise to advanced students to furnish 



* Whether Dr. Chalmers' mode of expression here is theologically and 
'philosophically correct is another question. The form of the proposition 
would seem to imply that there may be a God to whom these accessories 
cannot be attributed ; whereas the term God, in its highest sense and Chris- 
tian acceptation, applies only to the One Great Being who " sitteth above," Ac 

(17) Pvepeat the remark in reference to the lines of demarcation between these two kinds 
of accessories and illustrate by examples. 

(18) Eepeat the substance of the remark in reference to this distinction of accessories. 



364 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 114. 

examples of compound propositions containing an ejnthetic accessory. 
This exercise may prove more difficult than some heretofore prescribed. 
Let the learner select examples from older writers, as examples of the 
explicative accessory are more frequent in them. The relative is often 
used by them to introduce even a new sentence, as it is employed in 
Latin. Abundance of accessories of this kind may be found in the 
epistle to the Hebrews. See ch. 7 : 27 ; 8:5; 9 : 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, &c. 

§ 114. What employed as a Relatiye or CoxjtnsrcTivE PeoxoujS". 
— (1) What (really the neuter form of who^ and originally, like it, in- 
terrogative) is also employed as a conjunctive pronoun, but with this 
peculiarity, that it performs the functions of a noun both in the acces- 
sory, and in the principal proposition, or, in the usual language of 
grammarians, includes 'both the relatite and the antecedent. (2) It is 
thus equivalent to the determinative that employed substantively in 
the principal proposition, and which in the accessory. (3) In analysis 
some resolve every what of this kind into the words that which as the 
first step, and then substitute the analysis of that which for the analysis 
of ichat. (4) This mode of proceeding is, at least, unnecessary. It 
seems to us improper as well as unnecessary, since it implies that what 
is a substitute for these two words, or used instead of them, and there- 
fore that the use of it is secondary and later in origin. This substitu- 
tion is not proved, perhaps cannot be proved. 

"We submit a few examples for the purpose of illustrating the use 
of tchat. Keeping these in view, the learner will more readily com- 
prehend our remarks on the form of accessory in which what is em- 
ployed. 

(a) " What the weak head with strongest bias rules, 

Is pride, the never-failing vice of fools." 
(5) " What obeys reason is free." 

(c) " What wounds his virtue wounds his peace." 

(d) " What thou biddest unargued I obey." 

(e) " What He admired and loved, his vital smile unfolded into 

being." 

(f) " What you call wisdom they esteem madness." 

(g) " In what I have done I have consulted your interest." 

(5) In examples (a) (h) (c), what serves as subject of both principal 

§ 114. (1) State the peculiar manner in which tcTiat is employed as a conjunctive pro- 
noun. (2) To what two words is it equivalent? (3) Mention the mode in which some 
analyze ^D7lat thus employed. (4) State the objections to this mode of analysis. 

(5) State the purposes which what serves in Example a, in Example &, «fec 



§ 114.] WHAT EMPLOYED AS A RELATIVE. 365 

and accessory proposition ; in {d) {e) (/), as objective modification of 
tlie verbs in both propositions (or rather, perhaps, in {d) as objective in 
the accessory and dative in the principal) ; and in {g) it forms v^^ith in a 
noun and preposition modification of the princi'pal and objective mo- 
dification of the accessory preposition. 

(6) There is another and, wq think, a better — a more philosophical, 
as well as an easier way of treating compound propositions of this 
kind ; namely, to consider wTiat as connected with the accessory alone, 
and then to regard the accessory including wTiat as a substantme acces- 
sory proposition, or, if you please, an adjective accessory proposition 
employed substantively (in a manner analogous to the adjective em- 
ployed substantively), the accessory performing some function of a 
noun to the principal proposition. (7) By way of illustration, let us 
give a succinct analysis of the above examples. In example {a) the 
accessory, " What the weak head with strongest bias rules," consti- 
tutes the subject of " is " (the verb of the principal proposition). 'In 
the same manner, " What obeys reason," and " What wounds his vir- 
tue," are subjects in the compound propositions in which they occur. 
In example {d) "What thou biddest," modified by " unargued," is the 
objective (we think, more properly, the dative) modification to " obey" 
(the verb of the principal proposition). In (e) " What he admired 
and loved," is objective modification to the verb '•'• unfolded \^'' and in 
(/) " What you call wisdom," is objective modification to " esteem." 
In example {g) " In what I have done," is noun and preposition modi- 
fication to " have consulted your interest." 

(8) If the reader will attentively consider these and similar exam- 
ples, and especially the last, in which what is preceded by a preposition, 
he will, perhaps, find reason for agreeing with us that this last is the 
preferable method of analysis. It is manifest that the preposition in 
influences the whole accessory and serves as intermediate between it 
and " have consulted your interest," and that the whole thought ex- 
pressed in the accessory stands precisely in the same relation to the 
principal proposition as a single noun coming after in would stand in a 
simple proposition. (9) The analysis of this kind of compound propo- 
sitions is, if we adopt this mode, to be conducted exactly according to 
the rules given for conducting the analysis of compound propositions 
having substantvoe accessories. (10) If the accessory is subject of the 

(6) Eepeat what is said of another way of trenting propositions in which tohat relative 
occujs. (7) Illustrate this mode of treatment by a succinct analysis of the above examples. 

(8) Eepeat the substance of what is said in favor of this mode of analysis. (9) What is 
said of the order of conducting the analysis ? (10) State the order to be observed. 



366 STRUCTURE OF LAKGUAGE. [§ 115. 

principal proposition, analyze it when the subject comes in regular or- 
der to be considered; if the accessory is objective or noun and prepo- 
sition modification, let it be analyzed in its proper place when it comes 
under consideration as a part of the predicate of the principal proposi- 
tion. 

§ 115. Compound Eelatiyes axd the Accessories formed by 
THEIR Help. — (1] The following compounds of lolio^ loliich and lohat^ 
are formed by adding to them the words ever or so, or both so and e^•e?', 
whoever^ whoso ^ wliosoerer ; wJiicTie'cei\ whichsoever; whatever, whatso- 
ever. (2) When substantively employed, these words perform functions 
similar to ichat, and the accessory in which they occur may be treated 
in the same manner in analysis, as the examples which we have con- 
sidered in the last section. (3) Whoever, whoso and ivhosoever, like the 
primitive loho, are always employed as nouns ; whichever, ichichsoever, 
whatever and whomsoever, are frequently used as adjectives accompanied 
by the noun which they modify, and may sometimes, not always, like 
which used in the same way, be treated as determinative adjectives. 
(4) We subjoin some examples of the manner in which these compound 
conjunctive i)ronouns are employed in accessory propositions. Who- 
ever told you this is mistaTcen = any one who told you this is mistaken. 
Here the accessory, " Whoever told you this,''"' may be regarded as 
subject of the verb is, or that of which hemg mistahen (the predicate) 
is asserted. " Whoso removeth stones shall be hurt therewith." Who- 
ever is always idle is useless and contemptihle. " Whosoever commit- 
teth sin is the servant of sin." In all these, as in the first example, 
the accessory may be regarded as the subject of the compound propo- 
sition. "And giveth it to whomsoevier He will." Here the accessory, 
" to whomsoever He will," serves as noun and preposition modification 
to the verb " giveth" in the principal proposition. Whichever of these 
T)oo]cs you prefer is at your service. Whichever of these boolcs y oil pre- 
fer you may talce. " Whichever of these books you prefer," is subject 
in the first, and objective modification of the verb of the main asser- 
tion in the second example. Whichever and whichsoever are seldom 
used, except as determinatives accompanying a noun which they mo- 
dify. But even in this case the accessory into which they enter may 
often be most conveniently considered as substantive. Thus, Which- 

§ 115. (1) Enumerate the compouuds of w7io, which, and tcJiat, telling how they are 
formed. (2) State what is said of these compounds substantively employed, and of the ac- 
cessories into which they enter. (8) What is said of the manner in which these pronouns 
are respectively employed? (4) Illustrate the use of the compounds of who byexafhples 
The compounds of which in like manner. The compounds oiichat. 



§ 115.] WHO WITH ANTECEDENT SUPPRESSED. 36*7 

ever course suits you will suit me. Here " Whichever course suits you^'' 
may be considered the subject of " will suit we." " Whatever purifies 
fortifies also the heart." Here " Whatever purifies" (the heart) is sub- 
*^ect of the assertion " fortifies also the heart." 
" Whate'er adorns 
The princely dome," &c. 
" His tuneful breast enjoys." 
Here " whate'er adorns," &c. is objective modification to the verb " en- 
joys^ " I will do whatsoever thou sayest to me." The verb "<^o" 
has for objective modification the accessory "whatsoever thou sayest 
to me," as may be perceived by asking the question, what will I do ? 
Ans. " Whatsoever thou sayest to me." 

(5) All these compound pronouns may be regarded as having an 
indefinite antecedent. 

(6) Of these compound conjunctive pronouns whoever and whatever 
are in frequent use. Whichever is less used at present, and when used 
generally accompanies its noun, like other adjectives, as we have al- 
ready noticed. The other forms, whoso, whosoever, wMchsoe'oer, what- 
soever, may be regarded as antiquated, or, at least, they "are chiefly 
found in poetry or legal documents." — D"" Orsey. 

We shall hereafter have to notice another use of some of these 
compound pronouns in the formation of a difierent description of ac- 
cessories. (See § 138 : 25, et seq.) 

(7) Before we dismiss this subject, it must be observed that we 
find frequent examples of who employed indefinitely (without an an- 
tecedent expressed), like what and the compound relatives. These 
examples are found chiefly in poetry and in the prose of our older 
writers, particularly in the authorized version of the Scriptures. (8) 
Examples ; 

" Who lives to nature rarely can be poor ; 
Who lives to fancy never can be rich." 
" Whom the Lord loveth He chasteneth." " Whom he would he 
slew, and whom he would he kept alive, and whom he would he set 
up, and whom he would he put down." " Who steals my purse steals 
trash." In these examples who is equivalent to he who, and whom to 
him whom. " Whom the gods love die young." — Byron. Whom is here 
= to those whom ; but the forrjq of expression is not to be imitated. 



(5) How may all these compound pronouns be regarded ? 

(6) Tell which of them are in frequent use, and which antiquated. 

(7) Is who ever emnloyed in a manner similar to what ? (8) Illustrate by examples. 



368 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ US. 

It is shockingly awkward, if not absolutely contrary to the usage of 
our language. (9) Such expressions as, " I know who wrote that let- 
ter," may be referred to the same class : idIio being here =him who, 
perhaps wJio should be considered in such expressions as the interroga-* 
tive, and the accessory classed as an interrogative objective accessory 
proposition^ or as an insensible extension of this form of accessory. 

(10) It is not necessary to treat the accessories in which loTio is thus 
employed as we treat those formed wdth iDhat and the compound pro- 
nouns, though it is obvious that they might readily be so treated ; 
namely as substantive accessories. (11) The reason that we would 
not treat these as the accessory with what is that they are exception- 
al cases of the use of loho. This is not its ordinary function in con- 
struction. The antecedent may always be readily supplied either in 
the form of a noun or pronoun, in which case who performs its usual 
part. But not so with ichat. You cannot supply an antecedent to 
it, but must, if you attempt to change the form of expression, reject 
what altogether and substitute tJiat which for it, and then, instead of 
giving an account of lohat in the analysis, you only give an account 
of an equivalent expression. The same remark applies to the com- 
pound pronouns. 

(12) We may remark here, for the warning of the student, that it 
is not uncommon to find writers of high reputation and undoubted 
learning commit errors in the use of conjunctive pronouns. Thus 
" Men WHOM they supposed could be rendered subservient to their' 
schemes of spohation." What is the subject of " could he rendered^'' 
&c., in this ill-constructed proposition ? It is not men^ for that word 
has its function in connection with a part of the sentence here omit- 
ted. The writer did not mean to say that men whom they (referring 
to some other party) supposed^ that is men modified by the expression 
" whom they supposed^ " " could be rendered," &c., but that men 
should be modified by all that we have quoted of the sentence. The 
sense would be correctly expressed by saying men who they supposed 
could 5g, &c. We have ah-eady noticed a similar error in an expres- 
sion repeatedly employed by several translators of the gospels. {See 
§107. note.) 



(9) What other kind of expressions might be referred to the same class ? And to what 
other class may they perhaps he more properly referred ? 

(10) Is it required that we should treat these accessories formed with wTio indefinite as 
we treat those formed with what? (11) State the reason assigned for this difference in the 
mode of analysis. 

(12) Repeat the remark ahout the improper use of relatives. 



§ 116.] IDIOMATIC USE OF THE WORD THERE. 369 

(13) The learner will notice that, though the conjunctive pronoun 
generally refers to a noun as its antecedent — as that which the ac- 
cessory proposition modifies — it sometimes refers to a proposition, 
or rather to the predicate or part of the predicate of a proposition. 
(14) When this is the case, we employ the conjunctive wJiich^ not wlio^ 
nor that. Example, He tells the trut\ which you do not. Here which 
refers to the predicate of the preceding proposition, namely, telling 
the truth. This is what you do not. The accessory may here be 
regarded as employed instead of the co-ordinate proposition, and that 
is what you do not. This latter is the more natural and the prefer- 
able form of expression. The other may be considered as an extension 
of the adjective accessory beyond its original purpose. Me is faithful., 
which that man is not = and that man is not so. Here the antece- 
dent is the adjective faithful — part of the predicate of the preceding 
proposition. 

(15) The antecedent is sometimes found involved in an adjective 
pronoun — in other words, it is the noun which the adjective pronoun 
represents. We might propose as examples, Theie motives are un- 
hnoion who performed this act ; His is the crown who gains the victory. 
These forms of expression are not perhaps consistent with good taste 
in prose composition ; but they are sometimes met in poetry ; for 
example : 

" How beauteous are their feet, 
Who stand on Zion's hill !" 
" The prison of his tyranny who reigns 
By our delay." 

" To know 
Of things above his world, and of their being 
Who dwell in heaven, whose excellence he saw 
Transcend his own so far ; whose radiant forms, 
Divine effulgence, ichose high power, so far 
Exceeded human," &c. 
Exercises L, XL, &;c. — Form compound propositions involving the 
use of the compound relatives whoever., whatever., &c. 

§ 116. Peculiar Use of the Word There in the Commencement of 
Propositions. — (1) We may here notice an idiomatic form of expression, 



(13) What is said of the conjunctive, representing a predicate ? (14) Which of the con- 
junctive pronouns is employed for this purpose ? Illustrate by examples. How may this 
accessory be regarded ? 

(15) Repeat what is said of the antecedent being found in an adjective pronoun ; and illus- 
trate by examples. 

§ 116. (1) State what is said of an idiomatic use of the word there. (2) What connec- 



3*70 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 116. 

common in our langnage, in whicli the word there is employed in a 
peculiar manner to introduce the predicate of a proposition, before the 
subject is announced. This happens chiefly when the verb to le is 
employed to express the whole predicate. * 

(2; Our reason for noticing this particular form of propositions in 
this place is, that the subject noun of such propositions is very often, 
though not always, modified by an adjective accessory proposition. 
The form commencing with the word there is well suited to have this 
kind of modification attached to it, and we thus avoid the awkward- 
ness of first announcing a subject with a long modification, and then 
following it up by such a disproportioned predicate (we mean as to 
weight of sound) as the naked verb To Be. (3) The following exam- 
ples will illustrate our meaning ; There are many men who seem to 
de the mere slaves of their appetites and pass-ions. There are some 
men loho appear loholly unfit to 'be their own masters. These assertions 
ai'e equivalent to raany men who seem to te the mere slaves of tJieir ap- 
petites and passions are ; some men who appear wholly unfit to te their 
own masters are. (4) The verb are used in this last way appears so 
unsupported and awkward, so ill matched with the many-worded sub- 
ject with which it is connected, that it offends our sense of proportion 
and harmony. This is, no doubt, partly the reason of adopting the 
construction commencing with there. (5) It may be doubted whe- 
ther this use of there is to be considered as only an inseimible exten- 
sion of its common adverbial use from cases in which the objects 
whose existence is predicated are within the view of the speaker, and 
the hearer's*attention directed to them, to cases in which the objects 
are not literally there, but indicated with something of the deter- 
minateness of objects to which we point by a gesture of the hand or 
head. (6) But whatever may be the history of this form of con- 
struction, or at whatever period it may have been introduced in our 
language, there now performs in such cases a function similar to that 
of the representative words called pronouns — a function very similar 
to that which, it perfonns when we employ it as a substitute for a 
subject reserved to be fully presented after the predicate has first 

* The general use of this mode of expression, when the verb to be with- 
out modification expresses the predicate, conceals the fact that this verb 
so often forms the whole predicate of propositions, (See §46. ISTote, p. 82.) 



tion has this with the adjective accessory ? (3) Illustrate this idiomatic use by examples. 
(4) What is remarked of the equivalent propositions without there, and . of a reason for 
adopting this construction ? (5) What is said of the origin of this construction ? (6) What 



§ 116.] IDIOMATIC USE OF THE WOKD THERE. 3 71 

been expressed. (See §103.) (7) The difference between the use of 
it and there is that it is the substitute for a subject expressed 
afterwards in the form of a substantive accessory proposition, there 
merely serves the purpose of enabling us to throw the subject after the 
verb, which subject may or may not be modified by an adjective ac- 
cessory. (8) Both words enable us to change the order and bring the 
most ponderous part of the compound proposition last, and thus ob- 
tain a stronger and more harmonious arrangement. 

(9) This word thej^e^ as we have hinted above, is often employed 
in the same manner when no accessory is to be introduced to modify 
the subject noun, but when for some reason it is desirable to throw the 
subject after the verb ; as. There were many ladies at the assembly. 
(10) It is worthy of remark in this connection that there is often em- 
ployed in interrogative propositions ; and particularly that when so em- 
ployed, it is placed, like the subject noun in other interrogative ex- 
pressions, after the verb. This looks like serving as a substitute (for 
the moment) or representative of the subject noun. (11) For exam- 
ple : Is THERE another human being that would act in the same man- 
ner f Is THERE any person there f The use of such expressions as this 
last seems difficult to reconcile with the admission that there employed 
in the manner we are now describing was originally simply the ad- 
verb of place. In this case, we should have expected it to exclude 
the use of the second there to denote place. (12) We are at a loss for 
a name by which to distinguish this use of the word there. It ought 
to be distinguished in analysis. We may venture to adopt (for the 
sake of distinction) the name there subjective for this pecuhar employ- 
ment of there in connection with the subject of a proposition, without 
intending to give sanction to any particular explanation of this idiom. 
There was perhaps originally used only to modify a predicate, but in 
this idiom its function is transferred to the subject, and rather with 
the purpose of effecting a modification of the arrangement than of 
the sense. This much must be admitted, even though it should be 
contended that it still, as to form.^ modifies the predicate — that is to 
say, the verb to be. 

Exercises. — Form compound propositions exemplifying the usage 
of fhere is^ there are^ there loas., &c. 

is said of the function which there thus used now performs in the language? (7) What is 
said of the difference between theke used in this manner and it substitutive f (8) What 
is common to both words ? 

(9) Is THERE thus used only when the subject is completed by an adjective accessory? 
(10) Eepeat the remark about there in interrogative propositions ? (11) Furnish examples, 
and repeat the observation which follows them. (12) What is said of a name to distinguisli 
this use of the word there ? 



372 STRUCXrEE of LAX&rAGE. [§ 116« 

XoTZ. — "R'e mar notice that tlie -^ord there is sometimes emplored in 
the same mimner "vritli other rerbs, besides the verb to he. For example : 
"But if all prophecy, and thkhf come in," <te. "If tfterf. come into your 
assembly a man with a gold ring," d:c. "There shall no man see me and 
live.'' " Tttfp.e reraaineth therefore a rest to the people of God." " There 
remaineth no more sacrifice for sins." " There went "with him a band of 
men." 

" Zives I'MKRE a man with soul so dead?" 

It mnst not be foi^otten in this connection that therf^ now recognised 
as an adverb of place, is originally a determi native word, and that there is 
but a step from the determinatiTe to the pronominal or representatire func- 
tion, as is abundantly exemplified in the history of the conjunctiTe prononns 
in onr own and in other langnages. {See additional observations on the pro- 
nouns who, ichich, that, § 159.) To explain the manner in which there came 
to be nsed to indicate place is perfectly easy. There is simply, when it is 
so used, a suppression of the word place. There, being the dative of that, 
and place being implied, means in that place. But the fact that there is a 
dative case seems to stand in the way of explaining the particular usage 
which we are considering in any other manner than as an extension of the 
adverbial use. This subjective use of there, has not, so far as we know, been 
satisfactorily explained either by grammarians or philologists, We recom- 
mend the history of the introduction of this idiom to the attention of those 
who have access to the fragments of the old language which approach in 
age the Anglo-Saxon period. TTe find some examples of this idiom in Wicli^ 
such as "And there ben many that entren bi it" But he uses it much 
less than the later translators ; indeed, he seems generally to avoid it, and to 
adopt another form of expression. Some of the examples found in his trans- 
lation are different from those in modem use, and might perhaps help to 
account for this idiomatic use. Thus, " And there weren in Jerusalem," d:c. 
'' In Jerusalem " may here be regarded as an expansion of there in apposition 
with it, both being in the same case = And in that place, namely, in .Jerusalem^ 
were, <i:e. May we not here have an example of the way in which the 
transition was made from the common adverbial use to that which we are 
considering i 

We thint, upon the whole, that this subjective use of there has most 
likely originated from an imitation of the French idiom, or an insensible ex- 
tension of the adverbial use — ^perhaps partly from both. The French il-y-a 
is not precisely analogous to our expression, since the il — the pronominal 
word — ^is retained ; the verb too is different in meaning, and besides, is al- 
ways singular like the unipersonal verbs. And yet it may have sugsrested 
the use of our form there is, there are, at a time when our lansmaare received 
many other modifications fi-om the infiuence of the Xorman Conquest The 
word there, as thus employed, seems to retain the determinative force origi- 
nally belonging to it as a case of that — whilst the indication of place — implied 



§ 117.] ARRANGEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE ACCESSORY. SiS 

in its purely adverbial use is almost lost, or at least greatly obscured. Like 
that, it indicates something aloof from the speaker pointed out to the notice 
of the hearer, but, now at least, no longer by a reference to mere locality. 

§ 117. We come next to treat of the arrangement of this kind 
of modification ; and, separately, of the arrangement of the whole ad- 
jective accessory proposition in reference to the compound proposition, 
and of the arrangement of the conjunctive pronoun in the accessory 
proposition. 

1st. Arrangement of the Adjective Accessory in the 
Compound Proposition. — (1) The most appropriate place for the 
introduction of the adjective accessory is immediately after the word 
which it modifies. (2) In this case we suspend the progress of the 
mahi assertion till the modification expressed by the accessory is 
applied. Thus in the example, The man who acts virtuously 
deserves the approbation of his felloio-men^ at man, Hiq antecedent — 
the word to be modified — we suspend the progress of the main 
assertion, till the modification who acts virtuously is introduced. 

(3) This order is perfectly natural, since the accessory proposition, 
like an adjective in similar circumstances, constitutes part of the 
complete subject, and is therefore closely attached to the subject 
noun. It is not asserted in the example that what is expressed by 
the subject noun man^ that is, any or every man, or man merely as 
man^ deserves approbation, but man described by the following 
accessory — namely. The man ivho acts virtuously. 

(4) In the English language, however, we do not adhere rigorously 
— not so rigorously, for example, as in French — to the practice of 
introducing the accessory in immediate connection with the antecedent, 
or modified noun. (5) We often allow other modifications which 
customarily follow the noun, as, for example, the noun and preposition, 
to take precedence of the accessory and separate it from the antecedent ; 
thus, The paintings of the old masters which we saw yesterday. Here 
the noun and preposition of the old masters comes between the ante- 
cedent paintings and the accessory which we saw yesterday. (6) The 

§ 117. (1) Which is the most appropriate place for the introduction of the adjective ac- 
cessory? (2) Describe what is done to introduce the accessory. Illustrate by examples. 
(3) What is said of the order of arrangement described? 

(4) Do we always adhere to this order in English ? (5) What kind of modification is 
sometimes allowed to take precedence of the adjective accessory ? Illustrate by an exam- 
ple. (6) What helps sometimes to secure perspicuity to compound propositions thus ar- 



374 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§11'^' 

distinction between who and which observed in the modern language 
secures perspicuity to expressions like the preceding, when the 
antecedent and noun with preposition, like paintings and masters^ are 
the names the one of persons and the other of things. Thus we know 
above that which, is intended to represent paintings^ not masters. (7) 
But if in a compound sentence thus arranged two nouns preceding 
are both the names of persons or both the names of things, the pronoun 
should always represent only the last noun, otherwise we cannot, by 
ih^form of the expression, determine which is intended to be modified 
by the accessory. The sense indeed often determines this completely, 
and constructions are sometimes formed in which there is no obscurity 
though neither the collocation nor the pronoun used determines the inten- 
tion of the author. (8) But compound propositions of this kind should be 
avoided as much as possible. Even when the sense determines the in- 
tention of the writer or speaker, the interposition of words, especially 
of nouns, between the antecedent and the accessory proposition, is 
generally awkward and betrays want of skill in arrangement. (9) "We 
may observe, that in writing our language we are not as particular in 
the arrangement of these adjective accessories as is desirable for the 
purpose of securing a perfectly transparent and elegant style. 

2d. Arrangement of the Conjunctive Pronoun in the 
Accessory Proposition. — (10) The general rule for the collocation 
of the conjunctive pronoun in the accessory proposition is perfectly 
clear and easy, and the reason in which it originates obvious. (11) 
Since the pronoun in this case is not only representative^ but con- 
junctive^ serving to indicate the junction of the accessory with a 
word in the principal proposition, it is naturally placed between the 
things which it serves to conjoin ; namely, the modified word and 
the modifying accessory ; hence it obtains the fii'st place in the 
accessory. (12) There is one very common exception to this general 
rule, when the conjunctive pronoun with a preposition serves the 
function of noun and preposition modification. In all such forms 

ranged ? Illustrate by an example. (7) What is said in reference to the case in which both 
preceding nouns express persons or both things ? (S) Repeat the remarks regarding com- 
pound propositions where the sense alone and neither the collocation nor pronoun deter- 
mines the reference of the accessory. (9) Repeat obseiwation in reference to negligence in 
arrangement. 

(10) What is said in reference to the general ru!e for the collocation of the conjunctive 
pronoim ? (11) State the rule giving the reason of it. (12) Describe an exception ; and illus- 
trate by an example. 



§ 117.] ARRANGEMENT OF THE CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN. 375 

of modification the preposition almost imiversally takes the pre- 
cedence in our language, and, in the case before us, it does not yield 
it even to the conjunctive word. Example, The man to whom he 
wrote did not receive his letter. Here the preposition to retains its 
usual place before the pronoun, and so comes between the con- 
junctive word and the antecedent. 

(13) In some instances, other words beside the preposition precede 
the conjunctive pronoun in the adjective accessory proposition. (14) 
These exceptions, which it might be well to avoid as much as possible, 
occur chiefly, if not exclusively, when lohich with the preposition ofiQ 
the modification of a noun in the accessory proposition. For example : 
The 2^roposition^ the truth of which we have teen considering^ is im- 
portant. " A multitude of evils beset us, for the source of which we 
must look to another quarter." (15) This mode of expression seems to 
be used to avoid the employment oiwhosem reference to things^ or, in 
other words, as the genitive of which. (16) If we employ whose in the 
above propositions instead <?/ 'icZac/^, the conjunctive resumes its natural 
place first, or next to the preposition in the accessory. Thus, The 
proposition lohose truth we have leen considering., &c. " A multitude of 
evils beset us, for" whose "source we we must look," &c. (17) We think 
that both these forms of expression are inelegant, and not to be 
imitated, except when the attempt to avoid them would occasion am- 
biguity or obscurity, or greatly enfeeble the expression. 

Observation. — "When the conjunctive pronoun happens to be the subject 
noun of the accessory proposition, or when the genitive whose is employed 
to modify the subject noun, the arrangement occasions no difficulty in analy- 
sis, because it corresponds with the usual order of the members of proposi- 
tions — the subject first, the predicate last. But when the conjunctive pro- 
noun serves as a modification of the predicate, the construction sometimes 
occasions considerable difficulty to the young grammarian in his first at- 
tempts at analysis, because the order of arrangement is completely inverted, 
the pronoun which forms part of the predicate taking precedence of the 
subject. When from this cause any difficulty occurs in apprehending the 
relation which the conjunctive pronoun holds to the proposition, the student 
may be taught to replace, for a moment, the conjunctive pronoun by its an- 
tecedent, or by«a personal pronoun, or by the determinative tJds or that sub- 
stantively used, and then the modification will fall naturally into its usual 

(13) Do other words sometimes take precedence of the pronoim conjunctive ? (14) De- 
scribe these exceptions, and give examples. (15) For what purpose is this form of expression 
employed ? (16) What happens when whose is substituted for of which ? Example ? 
(IT) Eepeat the remark. 



376 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§118* 

position. By a momentary substitution of this kind, we may readily eatcTi 
the relation of the conjunctive pronoun to the rest of the proposition. Thus 
the accessory in the compound proposition, The man whom we saw this 
morning, will, by the substitution above described, become we saw him this 
morning ; or we saw the man this morning. Here the relation of him and 
man to the verb saw is manifest ; and the relation of who7n in the regularly 
constructed accessory must be the same. 

§ 118. We may here subjoin a few directions in regard to the 
use of the relative or conjunctive pronouns, and condense them into 
the form of a rule. This rule is the same in substance as that 
commonly given in our English grammars. 

(1) The conjunctive pronouns, as we have had occasion to observe, 
have no plural form ; they do not indicate whether that which they 
represent is singular or plural ; nor do they indicate person:^ (2) But 
when a conjunctive pronoun serves as the subject noun in an accessory 
proposition, it must b^ regarded as of the same person and number as 
the antecedent or antecedents which it represents, because the verb to 
which it is subject is of that number and person. Thus we say, I who 
EEAD, thoii, iDho EEADEST, he who EEADS, 1^6 loho EEAD, &c. — the Verb to 
which loho is subject invariably agreeing in number and person with 
the antecedent. Hence the convenience of the following condensed 
formula for the guidance of the learner, which may be referred to as 

(3) Rule III. — The relative or conjunctive pronoun is of the 
same number and person with the antecedent, and a verb to which 
it is subject must also be of the number and person of the ante- 
cedent. 

(4) Obs. 1. The learner will also remember that the rule which we 
shall have occasion to give in relation to subjects of different persons 
connected by copulative conjunctions, and embraced in the same 
assertion made by a verb standing in a relation common to these 



* The only rale to be observed in regard to the use of these words 
themselves in construction is that who is now used exclusively to represent 
persons, or beings personified, which to represent animals and inanimate 
things, and that to represent either persons, or nonpersonals.* This we have 
shown at length above. 



§ lis. (1) What remark is here repeated in reference to the conjnnctive pronouns? 

(2) How must the conjunctive, notwithstanding, be regarded when subject of the accessory ? 

(3) Kepeat the rule. 

(4) Kepeat the substance of Observation I. 



§ 118.] ANTECEDENTS OF DIFFERENT PERSONS. 3Y7 

subjects, applies to the case in which antecedents of diiferent persons 
have a common representative conjunctive pronoun, which forms the 
subject of an accessory proposition. If a conjunctive pronoun repre- 
sents an antecedent of the first person together with an antecedent of 
the second person or of the third person, the conjunctive pronoun is to 
be considered as of the first person plural, and of course the verb to 
which it may be subject in the accessory must be of the same person 
and number ; again, if the conjunctive represents an antecedent of the 
second person together with an antecedent of the third, it is to be con- 
sidered as of the second person, and the verb accordingly will be of the 
second person plural. It will be remarked that in such cases all that is 
indicated in our language is that when two or more singular antecedents 
are represented by a single conjunctive pronoun, the verb to which 
such conjunctive pronoun serves as subject must be of the plural 
form. As there is no distinction of persons plural marked by the form 
of our verbs, the person is not indicated. (See § 52.) 

(5) Obs. II. It sometimes happens that the same individual is re- 
presented by words of diflferent persons in the subject and predicate of 
the same proposition. Thus, lam a friend; you are an actor ; ice are 
men. The subjects of the first and last propositions are of the first 
person, the complementary nouns of the third person ; the subject of 
the second proposition is of the second person, the complementary 
noun of the third person, though the subject and complementary 
nouns in the three propositions represent the same party in each 
respectively. Now such a proposition may be followed by a conjunctive 
jjronoun and accessory, the one referring to, the other describing the 
individual represented by the subject noun and noun complementary of 
the principal proposition. Thus, I am a friend idIio tell you this^ or, 
/ a7n a friend who feels for your misfortunes. The question has arisen, 
with which antecedent, representing the same individual, should the 
conjunctive pronoun and the verb in the accessory proposition agree 
in person ; for instance in the example before us, with /or y^\t\\ friend f 
To answer this we have only to consider whether the accessory pro- 
position is intended to modify the subject noun or the complementary 
noun in the predicate of the principal proposition. If it is designed by 
the speaker or writer to modify the subject, as for example the subject in 
the proposition, / am a friend who tell you this, the verb must be, as 
here, in the first person ; and a better arrangement in such cases will 
be, in conformity with the general rule laid down above, to place the 
accessory immediately after the subject, and suspend the progress of 

(5) Eepeat the substance of Observation II. 



378 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§118' 

the main assertion till our subject is completed ; thus, / wlio tell you 
this am a friend. If, on the contrary, the accessory is designed to 
modify the noun in the predicate, the verb in the accessory must agree 
with that noun in person, and the proper arrangement is that exhibited 
above ; I am a friend who feels for your onigfortunes^I am such a 
FRIEND asfeels^ &c. the accessory describing /Wen<^. In the form, Iain 
a friend who feel for your misfortunes, or, more properly arranged, / 
who feel for your misfortunes awj a friend, it is I the subject that is 
described by the accessory, and iiot friend. The person /described by 
the accessory is asserted to be & friend, not the person / asserted to 
be the kind of friend described by the accessory. 

In closing our remarks on the conjanctive pronouns, we must not 
omit to notice certain compound words formed of a conjunctive pro- 
noun combined with a preposition. Compounds of this kind were 
much used by our old authors — by the translators., for example, of the 
Bible — instead of the simple pronoun and preposition. Such words 
are, whereat, whereby, wherefore, wherein, whereof, whereto, whereunto, 
whereioithi, &c. There are some other similar compounds, which, like 
some of these, may be considered as belonging to other classes of ac- 
cessories, such as whereahout to those of place, whereas to causals, and 
wherewithal to the interrogative pronouns. The word where in all 
these compounds is the dative or aMative of ichat — the case employed 
in Anglo-Saxon with the prepositions attached. As these words do 
not often occur in the modern language, it will be best, when we meet 
them, to resolve them into their component parts and treat them as 
nouns with a preposition, or rather as adjectives substantively employed 
with a preposition, the noun being imjyUed. The noun ought in each 
instance to be sujjplied by the learner in analysis. Thus, ichereby = by 
what or by which, referring to something easily discovered, and supplied, 
as being the antecedent to which what or which refers. This is a deci- 
dedly more useful and more satisfactory mode of analysis than to caU 
such words adverbs, as they are usually called in dictionaries and gram- 
mars. 

PEOMiscuotrs Examples of Adjective Accessory Propositions. — 
"We subjoin examples of compound propositions containing adjectiv^e 
accessories, for the purpose of exercising the learner in analysis. 

" The fixed and unchanging features of the country also perpetuate 
the memory of the Mend with whom we enjoyed them ; who was the 
companion of our most retired walks, and (who) gave animation to 
every lonely scene. His idea is associated with every charm of na- 
ture; we hear his voice in the echo which he once delighted to 
awaken ; his spirit haunts the grove which he once frequented," &c. 



§ 118.] PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF ADJECTIVE ACCESSORIES. 379 

" Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable." " The time 
which they sutler to pass away in the midst of confusion, bitter re- 
pentance seeks afterwards in vain to recall. What was omitted to be 
done at its proper moment, arises to be the torment of some future 
season." " But he who is orderly in the distribution of his time takes 
the proper method of escaping those manifold evils." "Miserable is 
the man who has no resources within himself, who cannot enjoy his own 
company, who depends for happiness upon the next amusement, or the 
news of the day."" " The leaf quivers on the branch which supports 
it. A breath of wind tears it from its stem, and it lights on the stream 
of water which passes underneath. In a moment of time, the life 
tohich we know by the microscope it teems with, is extinguished." 
" The enjoyments to which he looks up are not superior to his own. 
There are those iDhose appetites are courted by more costly provision 
than his ; whose senses are excited by more stimulating entertainments, 
and soothed by smoother accommodations ; whose days are spent in 
more expensive amusements, and whose nights are passed upon softer 
pillows : but he who fares sumptuously every day, sits down to no 
sweeter feast than he ; he whose delight is daily stirred by more pun- 
gent excitements, is no more animated by them than he is by his 
cheaper and soberer pastime ; and he whose love of ease is lulled in a 
downier Lip, whose situation is covered in every part of it with cushion, 
and lined all over with pillow, enjoys not a more delicious recum- 
bence," &c. " Those persons who know not how to distinguish be- 
tween liberality and luxury, are under a great error. Abundance of 
men know how to squander that do not know how to give." " They 
who are ignorant of what happened before their birth, will remain 
children all their lives." "HetoA*? imagines he can do without the 
world" {substantive accessory objective)^ " deceives himself much ; h&who 
fancies the world can do without him, is under a far greater delusion." 
" He that hath no rule over his own spirit is like a city that is broken 
down and without walls." " The veil that covers from our sight the 
events of succeeding years, is a veil woven by the hand of mercy." 
" He that trusts his own wisdom proclaims his own folly." " He that 
rejoices at the prosperity of another man, is a partaker thereof." (We 
mark the suppression of the conjunctive pronoun in some of the fol-, 
lowing examples by a dash, thus — ) " It is the spot — I came to seek." 
" The throne — we honor is the 'people's choice ; the laws — we reve- 
rence are our brave fathers' legacy ; the faith — we follow teaches us 
to live in bonds of charity with all mankind," &c. Whoever shows a 
man his mistakes in a kind manner is his friend. " Whatever is, is 
right." They saw whatever could be seen. "At once came forth 



380 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§119- 

whatever creeps." " Whosoever hath. Christ for his friend will be sure 
of counsel ; ichoever is his own fi-iend will be sure to obey it." 
" He is the freeman ichom the truth makes free." 
" The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose." 
Show the intentional ambiguity in this line, and express the two senses 
which it bears in such a way that the one cannot be confounded with 
the other. 

" Who never fasts, no banquets e'er enjoys ; 
Who never toils or watches, never sleeps." 
, " And fools iDho came to scoif remained to pray." 

"Let me take a horse who is to bear me." "Like mountain cat, who 
guards her young." " A score of vagabond dogs, icho served his pur- 
pose." " Wine is like a strong serpent, who will creep unperceivedly 
into your empty head." (Observe the personification in the four pre- 
ceding examples.) 

" Wliatever nature has in worth denied. 
She gives in large recruits of needful pride ! 
For, as in bodies, thus in souls, we find 
What wants in blood and spirits, swelled with wind." 
" Just as absurd to mourn the tasks or pains, 

— The great directing iniN'D of all ordains." 
"Call imperfection ichat thou fanciest such." 
That something still which prompts the eternal sigh, 
For which we bear to live, or dare to die ; 
Which still so near us, yet beyond us lies." 

" Couldst thou divine 
To what would one day dwindle that which made 
Thee more than mortal?" 
What is here interrogative, and the compound proposition. To what 
would one day dwindle that which^ &c., is an interrogative substantive 
accessory, forming the objective modification of the verb divine. 
" I hear a voice — you cannot hear, 
Which says, I must not stay ; 
I see a hand — you cannot see, 
Which beckons me away." 
Observe, I must not stay^ is substantive accessory objective modifica- 
tion to the verb says. 

§119. Of Adveeblal Accessory Peopositioxs ix gexeeal. — "We 
now come to treat of adverdial accessory propositions. (1) In enter- 



§ 119.] ADVERBIAL ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS. 381 

ing on this subject, the learner will do well to revert to what we have 
said of adverbs (§ 92), namely that they are an abbreviated method of 
expressing the same kind of complement which is more formally ex- 
pressed by a modified noun and preposition. Otherwise, when a sin- 
gle word expresses what is expressed by a noun and preposition modi- 
fication, we call that word an adverb. (2) Now we here call all those 
accessories which express modifications similar either to those ex- 
pressed by adverbs or by that of which an adverb is an abbreviation 
(a noun completed by a descriptive adjective and preceded by a pre- 
position) advertial accessories^ since in them, as in the adverb, the 
preposition is generally suppressed. (3) It is not always suppressed ; 
for some accessory propositions are connected, as we shall see, to 
their principal proposition by the intervention of a preposition 
exactly as a single noun is connected by a preposition with the 
modified word. We might have arranged these among the substan- 
tive accessories, and formed of them a class of substantive accessories 
connected with their principals by a preposition. (4) The learner will 
then remember that we do not separate into distinct classes the ac- 
cessories which retain the form of noun and preposition., and the ad- 
verbial which do not retain this form ; but consider them promis- 
cuously, since, like the noun and preposition modification and the ad- 
verb they differ, rather in mere form than in the purpose for which 
they are employed. We shall, however, carefull}^ notice the cases, as 
they pass in review, in which a preposition serves to connect accesso- 
ries of this class. 

(5) Obs. — We shall treat these adverbial accessories with more brev- 
ity (considering their number), than the preceding class ; not because a 
knowledge of them is unimportant, but because what has been already 
said, especially in reference to the adjective accessories connected by 
the conjunctive pronouns, prepares the learner to understand us 
without entering so minutely into details, which must consist in a 
great measure of the mere repetition, with slight change, of matter 
which has been introduced in treating the classes of accessories already 
considered. A hint or a reference to the preceding pages will, we 
hope, be sufiScient to bring before the student's mind facts and illustra- 
tions which it would consume much time to repeat again at full length. 



§ 119. (1) To what is the learner requested to revert in entering on the consideration of 
adverbial accessories ? (2) Mention what accessories we include in the class of adverbial ac- 
cessories. (3) What is said of accessories connected by a preposition, and of the mode in 
which they might be classed ? (4) What is the learner here to remember? 

(5) Repeat the substance of the observation in reference to brevity. 



382 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§119. 

(6) "We are not certain that we may not be found to have omitted 
important classes of the adverbial accessories ; but we trust that, by 
the help of the Ulustrations about to be given, the cases, which may 
not come clearly within our tlassifications, will present no insuperable 
obstacle to the student. Let him try his own skill in explaining any 
forms of construction which we may have overlooked, and in devising 
formula by which they may be readily recognised and subjected to a 
rational analysis. 

(7) There is another thing of which it may be well at this step of 
our progress to caution the learner. It has reference to our use of the 
terms principal and accessory applied to propositions. When we 
speak of a principal and of an accessory proposition, the student will 
please notice that we use these terms relatively^ not absolutely. By a 
principal proposition we mean one which is principal relatively to a 
particular accessory by which, at least as regards grammatical form, it 
is modified. But this principal^ in relation to the accessory in ques- 
tion, may itself, perchance, be only an accessory to some other proposi- 
tion, which it modifies. In other words, we do not restrict the ap- 
pellation principal proposition to the main proposition in a whole sen- 
tence or com_po'?m(^ proposition, but of two propositions to that one wliich 
is modified or completed in some way by the other. As it is impor- 
tant that we should have a common understanding with our readers 
in reference to this matter, we illustrate our meaning by examples. 
And, since what we have now noticed applies to the use of these 
terms in speaking of the parts of compound propositions Avith sub- 
stantive and adjective, as well as adverbial accessories, we shall choose 
an example in which the accessories are of the form already familiar 
to the learner. "Do you imagine that all are happy, who have at- 
tained to those summits of distinction, towards which your wishes as- 
pire?" Here the main proposition "i>c> you imagine " is modified by 
the substantive accessory " that all are happy ;" and this in its turn is 
principal to the accessory " who have attained to those summits^'''' &c., 
which completes the word all. Again, the accessory proposition " who 
have attained to those summits of distinction " is principal in reference 
to the accessory " towards which your wishes aspire.^''' which completes 
the words "summits of distinction." Here we see that a proposition 
may serve as accessory to an accessory of an accessory of another 
proposition ; or to view the facts in another point of view, a word in 
a principal proposition may be modified by a compound proposition. 

(6) What is said in reference to classes of these accessories which may be overlooked ? 

(7) State the substance of the caution, and ilkistrate it by examples. 



§ 120.] ADVERBIAL ACCESSORIES WHICH MODIFY ADJECTIVES. 383 

The verb " imagine " in the main proposition above is modified by the 
whole doubly compounded proposition which follows to the end of the 
example; " 6i^/7," in the first accessory, is modified in like manner by the 
whole compound proposition which succeeds it. We subjoin another 
example which the learner may examine, and apply for the purpose of 
illustration. " Philosophers teach us, that the mind creates the ieauty 
which it admires in nature." 

Classification of Adverbial Accessories. — (8) We shall classify 
the adverbial accessory propositions in a manner similar to that in 
which we classified the adverbs. It will conduce to the ease of the 
learner to adopt this classification already familiar to him. and to pur- 
sue, as far as convenient, the same order in explaining adverbial acces- 
sories which we have employed in explaining adveriial modifica- 
tions. 

(9) We divide these accessories agreeably to this method into two 
classes : 

I. Adverbial accessories which modify adjectives. 

II. Adverbial accessories which modify ver&s, or sometimes per- 
haps the &ni\.YQ, principal proposition. 

For an account of the distinction between those which, like the 
adverbial propositions of manner., obviously modify verbs, and those 
which may, perhaps with greater propriety, be considered as modi- 
fying the whole principal assertion, we refer the reader to what we 
have said on this subject in reference to noun and preposition and ad- 
verbial modifications. (/Sige§83.) 

§ 120. 1. Adverbial Accessories which modify Adjec- 
tives. — (1) The adverbial accessories which modify adjectives, like 
the adverbs which modify adjectives, usually express degrees of 
intensity. They do this generally by the introduction of a com- 
parison. 

(2) We express an equal degree of intensity comparatively by a 
form of accessory connected with the principal proposition by the 
word AS. We use as both before the adjective to be modified and 
after it to connect the accessory. 

(3) The as before the adjective (whatever may be the origin of 



(8) Repeat the remark in reference to the classification of adverbial accessories. 

(9) Mention the classes into which we divide adverbial accessories. 

§120. (1) What is said generally of the adverbial accessories which modify adjectives? 
(2) Describe the manner in which we express equality of intensity. (3j What is said of 



384 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 120. 

the word whether pronominal or determinatue) is now adverMally 
used to help in modifying the adjective ; the second as may be consi- 
dered a conjunctive adverb, since it performs the function of con- 
junction in joining the two propositions, and at the same time the 
function of adverb in the accessory. (4) Some call the word as a 
coDJunctive pronoun. (5) We admit that it performs nearly the same 
function as a conjunctive pronoun, but so do many other adverbs (or 
words universally acknowledged to be adverbs), as we shall see pre- 
sently. We need not dispute about names, where no gross error lurks 
under them. We subjoin an example of this construction. (6) That 
man is as wise as you are = That man is as wise as you a.re tcise. Some 
call this the comparison of equality. (7) Generally both the verb and 
the adjective are omitted in the accessory proposition ; but in such cases 
the verb, at least (if not both verb and adjective), is clearly implied., 
and should always be supplied in a formal analysis. On this account 
we do not class this form of expression with the dbbremutions used 
for accessory propositions. (See § 140: 3, 4.) These are merely cases of 
obvious elhpsis or suppression. 

(8) In the example which we have presented, the equal intensity 
of the same (adjective) quality in two different subjects is expressed, 
but the same form of accessory is also employed to express the same 
degree of intensity of different qualities in the same subject. For 
example, That man is as good as he is great. 

(9) These adverbial accessories may readily be resolved into adjective 
accessories. By doing this we may more clearly comprehend their 
structure and their use. Thus, That man is wise in the same degree in 
which you are wise., or simply, icise in the degree that you are wise. 
And that man is good in the (same) degree in which he is great. 
(10) Here we may discover that the first as is an abbreviation, like aU 
other adverbs, for a noun and preposition modification, and the latter 
«s, in like manner, an abbreviation for a conjunctive pronoun and pre- 
position. 

(11) In analysis the learner may call the proposition commencing 

the double use of the word as in this kind of modification ? (4) What have some called as 
when employed to connect an accessory ? (5) What remark is made in reference to the 
name given to this word ? (6) Eepeat the example. (7) What generally happens in acces- 
sories of this kind ? 

(8) Mention another purpose for which this form of accessory is employed. 

(9) Mention another form into which this kind of accessory may be resolved. Illustrate 
by examples. (10) What may be discovered after this resolution is effected ? 

(11) Tell the name given to distinguish these accessories, and describe the method of 
treatinsr them in analysis. 



§ 120.] ACCESSORY OF EQUAL INTENSITY. 385 

with the second as The adverbial accessory expresswe of equal intensity^ 
telling the adjective which it modifies. Then as may be treated as 
an adverb in both the jprincijpal and the accessory proposition, {a) 

Before we dismiss this subject, we may remark that adverbs, as 
might be expected, are susceptible of modification from the same 
kind of accessories attached to the principal proposition, in which the 
adverb occurs, and in exactly the same manner. Thus, That man la- 
bors as diligently as his neighbor. This man acts as wisely as his 
father acted, (b) 

(12) Punctuation. — This accessory is not usually separated by 
interpunction ; though in this, as in other cases, usage is perhaps not 
altogether settled. 

Exercises I., II., &c. — Form compound propositions with accessories 
expressing equality of intensity for the purpose of limiting an adjective 
in the principal proposition. 

Note, — (a) This kind of accessory may be regarded as expressing the 
identity of the degree of intensity, either of the same quality in different 
subjects, or of two distinct qualities in the same subject, in the same way as 
some accessories of time, place, manner, express identity of time, place, man- 
ner. As, for example, He came when / came ; He was arriving while his 
brother was departing ; You think as / think. The only difference is that 
the connecting words when, while, as, are not twice used as in the former 
case, though they really perform a function in the principal as well as in 
the accessory proposition. This is seen when we complete these com- 
pound propositions ; thus, He came at the time when / came, or He came at 
THE TIME AT WHICH / camc. Here it is manifest that when performs the 
function both of a complement in the principal and in the accessory ; be- 
cause in the case under consideration the adverbial word as is repeated in 
both propositions, and because this does not happen in other cases the con- 
struction is regarded as singular, and as occasioning difficulty in the analysis 
of such compound propositions. But, in truth, the construction before us is 
more simple, less artifical, lees elliptical than the accessories of time, place, 
and manner introduced above. There is in the one case a suppression which 
does not exist in the other. The suppression takes place perhaps for two 
reasons, namely, that such words as when (if not interrogative) and while have 
always a conjunctive force, and cannot therefore stand in a principal propo- 
sition ; and that if used in such principal propositions as they succeed, they 
would naturally come last, and coming last in the principal and first in the 
accessory a disagreeable repetition of the same word would occur. JSTeither 
reason applies to as. It is not always used conjunctively, but often as a 
simple adverb ; and its natural place is not last in a principal proposition 

(12) Punctuation? 



386 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 121. 

followed by an accessory expression of equal intensity, but before the adjec- 
tive which it modifies. Had it come after the adjective it would, no doubt, 
have been suppressed, as other words are in similar circumstances ; or as 
happens with as itself when used to express manner, as in the example, You 
think AS / think = you think in the manner in which I think. 

]S"oTE. — (6) Some accessories of this kind have been gradually, by insen- 
sible extension, diverted from their original purpose ; as, for example, the 
]_ihrase as well as. In the compound proposition, This musician sings as well 
as lie plays; "as he plays" is manifestly an ordinary example of the ad- 
verbial accessory of equal intensity applied to the adverb well, and the asser- 
tion is equivalent to He sings in a manner equally good with the mariner in 
which he plays. But when we say This musician sings as well as plays, the 
meaning is altogether different, though the difference in form consists merely 
in the suppression of the subject pronoun he before plays. This last propo 
sition only expresses that the musician, besides being able to play (which 
both parties to the discourse are supposed to know already), can also sing. 
It is equivalent to saying You know that the musician plays, in addition to 
this I inform you that he also sings. The two propositions thus stand to 
each other nearly in the relation of co-ordinate propositions. As well as 
plays may be considered rather as an addition to the preceding assertion, 
than as a modification of it. It stands in no closer relation to the other than 
co-ordinate propositions often stand to one another. If it is to be regarded 
as an accessory, and as modifying any thing in the preceding proposition, it 
cannot be well, nor even sings well (for the manner of singing is not in this 
case indicated), but it is simply the verb sings which it affects. At all events, 
the words as well as plays have here a very different effect from the words 
as well as he plays in the first example, and a veiy different effect from the 
ordinary adverbial accessory of equal intensity, 

§ 121. Accessory OF GREATER or lesser intensity. — (1) The 
adjectives of the comparative degi-ee, whether of superiority or in- 
feriority (that is, adjectives modified by the termination er, or the 
adverbs 7nore or less, and thus indicating greater or lesser intensity), 
are generally completed or limited by an adverbial accessory 
proposition connected with the principal proposition by the con- 
junction than. (2) Examples : He is taller than his brother is. He was 
moreprvdent than the preceding sovereign was. That hoy is less stu- 
dious than his cousin is. (3) Here the adjective is never repeated in the 
accessory proposition. The verb too, as in the comparison of equality ^ 

§ 121. (1) What form of adjectives is modified or restricted by the accessory/ ot greater 
or lesser intennity ? (2) Illustrate by examples. (3) Mention the parts usually suppressed 
in accessories of this kind. 



§ 121.] ACCESSORY OF GREATER OR LESSER INTENSITY. 387 

is generally suppressed, and the compound proposition reads thus, 
He is taller than his brother. That ho]) is less studious than his 
cousin. But in all cases both the verb and the adjective are implied 
in the accessory. 

(4) In the examples given, there is a comparison between two 
distinct subjects in reference to the degree, in which they possess the 
same quality/. We use a similar form to express the comparison of 
the degrees in which two different qualities are possessed by the 
same subject. (5) Thus, He is braver than he is wise, or, suppressing 
the verb of the accessory, He is braver than wise. As this accessory 
helps to express a greater or lesser degree of intensity, we call it the 
accessory of greater or lesser intensity/ ; or of the comparative degree. 

(6) The learner will remark that this form of accessory, like the 
one last considered, is employed to complete the modification of com- 
parative adverbs as well as comparative adjectives. For example. He 
acts more wisely than his brother. For the reasons that adverbs of 
manner are susceptible of this and other modifications in common with 
adjectives, see § 94.* 

Exercise. — Form examples of this construction. 

(7) Related to this in regard to the purpose which it serves, 

* Than (in old English thanne, in later English often then, in Anglo- 
Saxon thonyie, or thanne, <fec.) is undoubtedly the accusative of the Anglo-Saxon 
determinative or article, used also in that language as a conjtmctive pronoun. 
The appropriation of quam in Latin to connect the accessory of the compa- 
rative degree seems precisely analogous to what has happened in our lan- 
guage. In both languages there is likely the suppression of a preposition 
before, perhaps of a noun after, quam and than ; or there is a peculiar em- 
ployment of the accusative equivalent to the suppression of a preposition, 
as in the accusatives of tiine, value, &c. We suspect that ofer [over) was the 
preposition suppressed in the Anglo-Saxon, since this preposition succeeded 
by an accusative is found after the comparative degree. For example, gif 
tkonne strengra ofer hine cymth == If then (one) stronger over him come. 
If we supply the suppressions in one of the above examples according to 
this conjecture, it will run thus, he is taller over that {degree) his brother is 
tall. 



(4) Mention another purpose for which this form of accessory is employed. (5) Give 
examples. 

(6) "What is said in reference to the modification of comparative adverbs ? 

(T) Describe another similar purpose for which an accessory is employed, (8) Illustrate 



388 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 121. 

tliough dissimilar in form, is the accessory employed in expressing 
similarly increasing intensities, or that the intensity of one quality 
is as the intensity of another, or, again, that the intensities of the two 
qualities vary in opposite directions, the one increasing as the other 
decreases. (8) We commence with examples : The higher that 
man's elevation is, the greater will be his fall. (9) In this kind 
of construction the verb is very generally suppressed both in the 
principal and in the accessory proposition. Thus, the higher the 
elevation, the greater the fall ; the more, the merrier ; the fewer, the 
better cheer. In speaking of property employed for good purposes, 
we say, The more, the hetter=The more a man has, the better it is 
for himself and those around him. If, on the contrary, employed 
for bad purposes, we say. The less, the better. Of some things we 
say, The warmer, the better ; of others, the colder, the better; the 
less warm, the better; the less cold, the better. 

(10) In this construction there occurs a very peculiar use of the 
word the, which claims a moment's notice. (11) The learner will ob- 
serve, before we proceed, that in this construction the accessory stands 
first, and the principal proposition last, (12) It will help to render 
this fact manifest, and to further our purpose of explaining the use of 
the in both propositions, to substitute a construction equivalent in 
sense to that presented in the above examples. Thus, The fall is 
greater in" that (or in the) degree, in which (degree) tlie elevation is 
higher. This is manifestly equivalent to the construction in the exam- 
ple ; or rather is the same construction expanded, and having the sup- 
pressed words supplied. (13) Here, then, we see that the in the prin- 
cipal proposition is employed in its usual determinative function, but 
adverbially, both a noun and preposition being implied, as in adverbs, 
or adjectives adverbially used ; and that in the accessory it performs 
the function, as it formerly did in the Anglo-Saxon, of a conjunctive 
pronoun used in the same manner, preposition and noun being sup- 
pressed. In other words, the in the principal proposition = in the (or 
that) degree; and in the accessory == m which {degree). We give 
another example for illustration : The more intelligent, the more libe- 

by an example. (9) What suppression generally occurs in this construction ? Illustrate 
by several examples. 

(10) "What peculiarity occurs in this construction ? (11) Which stands first, the accessory 
or the principal, in the examples above ? (12) What reasons are assigned for presenting a 
substitute for the above construction ? Mention the substitute, and illustrate the use of fhe 
by it. (13) How is the employed in each proposition ? 



§ 121.] ACCESSORY INDICATING INTENSITY BY EFFECT. 389 

ral. Speaking of men = Men are more liberal in the degree (or in 
the proportion) in which they are more intelligent* 

(14) Since this accessory has some connection with the science of 
quantity, we venture to borrow a name from the mathematicians. 
We call it The accessory used in expressing intensities equally varying 
directly or indirectly ; or, more briefly. Accessory of equally 

VARYING INTENSITIES. 

Exercise, — Furnish a number of examples of this construction. 

(15) There is another form of accessory applied to adjectives 
for the purpose of indicating the degree of intensity designed to be 
expressed in a particular case. This accessory describes the intensity 
by an example of the effect produced by it. Thus, The weather is 
so cold, that the water freezes in the ponds; The weather has 
become so warm, that the snow on the mountains begins to dissolve. 
Here the intensity of the cold in the one case, and of the heat in the 
other, is indicated by the effect produced. One man is so rich, 
that it gives him trouble to expend his wealth. Another is so poor, 
that he can scarcely get bread to eat. 

(16) In this construction, the adjective is first modified in the_^?'m- 
cipal proposition by the adverb so, and as thus modified is further com- 
pleted by the accessory proposition introduced by the conjunctive 
determinative that. (17) The same construction is employed in modi- 
fying the determinative such as well as descriptive adjectives preceded 
by so. Thus, That man's character is such^ that nobody can confide in 



* This construction may be compared with the Latin construction in 
which quo and eo or hoc serve the same purpose as the serves in the case be- 
fore us. For example, Quo difficilius, hoc praeclarius = The more difficult, 
the more glorious, ^o minor est arcus, quo altior est sol = The higher the 
sun is, the less is the rainbow. Homines quo plura hahent, eo ampliora cu- 
piunt = The more men have, the more they desire. The here performs the 
functions both of eo and quo, as it very frequently does in Anglo-Saxon. 
In this construction we have a remarkable relic of the conjunctive use of 
the, perhaps the only remnant of this use in the language. (See §§ 158, 159). 

(14) What i3 said of naming this accessory ? Repeat the name. 

(15) Describe another form of accessory used to express the degree of intensity ; and 
illustrate by examples. 

(16) Describe the manner in which the adjective is modified in this construction. 

(17) Repeat what is said of the modification of such and illustrate by examples. 



390 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 122. 

him. Such here seems to be equivalent to so 'bad — so suspicious^ or the 
hke ; in other words, such = so, with an adjective. Hence it is not 
strange that such should be modified by the same form of accessory 
that an adjective preceded by so takes to complete it. 

(18) This kind of accessory we may designate by the name of The 
adverbial accessory indicating the degree of intensity by example or by 
effect. More briefly, The accessory indicating intensity by effect. 

(19) We may remark here, that when, instead of a complete acces- 
sory of this kind, we adopt the infinitive form of contracted accessory 
(see § 142 : 9, 10) we employ tfs, not that., to connect this contracted 
accessory with the principal proposition. Examples : This weather is 
so WARM AS TO DISSOLVE the snow ou the mountains. He is so wise as 
not to confide in men ichom he does not Icnow. He is so poor as to beg — 
so mean as to steal. That man'^s character is such as to destroy all 
confidence in his proinises. 

Exercises L, II., &c. — Furnish examples of these forms of con- 
struction. 

(20) We next notice a form of accessory which expresses an indefinite 
or luibounded degree of intensity. (21) The conjunctive adverb used 
to introduce this is however. (22) We give as an example, However 
poicerful that manmay be., he is not likely to succeed in that enterprise. 
= Though that man may have any or every degree of poicer., he is not 
likely to succeed, &c. (23) This accessory is exactly similar to the con- 
cessive accessory to be considered below (see § 138 : 27, and note), only 
that the force of the advei'b however here falls upon the adjective. 

Remark. — (24) The adjective and the adverb however 2X0, sometimes, 
used alone in accessories of this kind, the rest of the proposition being 
implied ; as, " No examples, however awful., sink into the heart " = No 
examples, however awful they may be, &c. 

§ 122. (1) We may here notice another form of compound propo- 
sition, which may be regarded as standing related both to the class 
we have been considering and to the class to which we are presently 
to direct our attention. (2) We shall first present examples, and 

(18) "What name is given to this form of accessory ? 

(19) Repeat the substance of the remark, and ihustrate by examples. 

(20) What form of accessory is next noticed ? (21) Wliat conjunctive word is em- 
ployed to introduce it? (22) Ilhistrate the use of this accessory by an example. (23) To 
what other accessory is this exactly similar? 

(24) Repeat the substance of the remark. 

§ 122. (1) What is said of the compound proposition about to be noticed ? (2) Give ex- 
amples. 



§ 122.] ACCESSORY OF SIMILAR INTENSITY. 391 

then proceed to examine them. ^5 Aristides tvas conspicuous 
among the Athenians for integrity^ so Themistocles was conspicuous 
for political sagacity and adroit management. As John is loved for 
his benevolence, so Peter is despised on account of his unfeeling self- 
ishness. As his elevation was great, so his fall is humiliating. 

(3) These propositions somewhat resemble the compound pro- 
positions which express the comparison of equality, (4) In some 
cases of this construction it may not be clear, at first sight, which is 
the accessory proposition, or whether the two propositions are not 
to be regarded as co-ordinate, the writer designing to express two 
distinct assertions, and to add to the effect of both by placing them 
together. (5) Upon changing slightly the construction, we shall, 
in most cases, readily discover which is, at least in form, the ac- 
cessory, and which the principal proposition. (6) For illustration 
let us take the second example above, As John is loved for his 
benevolence, so Peter is despised on account of his selfishness. This 
is equivalent to, Peter is despised on account of his selfishness in 
so GREAT DEGREE as John is loved, &c. (7) It is evident that the pro- 
position which comes last in the original example and first in the 
substituted construction, " Peter is despised, &c. is the principal pro- 
position, (8) We can even omit the adverb so in the principal 
proposition, and by placing it first express the same meaning, though 
perhaps not so forcibly ; thus, Peter is despised for his selfishness, 
as John is loved for his benevolence. (9) It is really so {==in so great 
degree) in the principal proposition which is modified by the 
accessory. When not expressed, so or its equivalent in such or so great 
degree is implied, and modified by the accessory. (10) The accessory 
is connected by the conjunctive adverb as. This word as may also 
serve to indicate to the learner which is really the accessory pro- 
position. 

(11) This construction difliers in two things from that into which the 



(8) What other class of compound propositions do these resemble ? (4) Tell what it may- 
be sometimes difficult to determine in constructions of this kind. (5) Describe a mode of 
discovering which is the principal and, which the accessory proposition. (6) Illustrate b}- 
an example. (7) Which in the example is evidently the principal proposition ? (8) What 
is said of the suppression of the word so f (9) Which is the word really modified by the 
accessory ? (10) By what word is the accessory in this construction connected ? And what 
may the connecting word serve to indicate to the learner ? 

(11) Mention the two things in which this construction differs from that with an acoes- 



392 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 123, 

accessory of equal intensity enters. It does not express strictly equal 
intensity, but rather similarity of intensity, and even that in a loose 
way. And, in the second place, this kind of accessory does not affect 
exclusively (as the one referred to does) the adjective in the principal 
proposition, but the whole predicate. ((12) Of this predicate, it 
generally happens, that the adjective is the most prominent part; and 
therefore the adjective appears as if it were peculiarly affected by the 
accessory.) (18) Thus, when I say, using the accessory of equal 
intensity. Your IrotTier is as cold as you are, I indicate simply the 
equal intensity of the quality cold in the case of your brother and you. 
But when I say. As JoTin is loved for Ms denedolence, so Feter, &c. I in- 
dicate some sort of equality in a loose manner, or rather of similarity, 
between Peter's deing despised for Ms seJfshness and John's deing loved 
for Ms tenevolence. 

(14) This accessory may perhaps be considered as expressing the 
manner of Peter's being despised rather than the degree of intensity of 
the despite. If so, it approaches in character (if it belongs not entirely) 
to the class of accessories which we are next about to consider, and 
thus affords a natural transition from the one class to the other. 

(15) We may designate this by the name of The Accessory in- 
dicating Similar Intensity — more briefly. The Accessory of Similar 
Intensity. It stands, as we have just intimated, between two classes 
of accessories — those which modify adjectives and those which 
modify verbs, but has stronger claims to be arranged with the latter 
class. 

ExEEOiSE. — Furnish examples of this construction. 

§ 123. (1) We next proceed to consider those adverbial ac- 
cessory propositions which manifestly modify the verbs or predicates 
of the principal propositions, or sometimes the whole principal 
assertion. 

(2) Here we shall first direct our attention to that class of 
accessories in which the manner of the action predicated by the verb 
is expressed. 



sory of equal intensity. (12) Mention the remark about the adjective in the predicate of 
this accessory. (13) Illustrate by examples. 

(14) Mention the remark about the class to which this accessory belongs. (15) How 
may this accessory be designated ? And where is it represented as standing ? 

§ 123. (1) Describe the kind of accessories next to be considered. 



§ 123.] ACCESSORY OF MANNER BY COMPARISON. 393 

These are exactly analogous to the adverbs of manner already- 
considered. {See § 92.) 

(3) There are different forms of this species of adverbial accessory. 
One form describes the manner of the action predicated in the 
principal proposition by comparison — ^by reference to another action 
of the same subject, or to the same or sometimes to a different 
action of another subject. This accessory follows the principal pro- 
position, and is connected with it by the conjunctive adverb as. (4) 
For example, That man died as he lived. He acts in this affair as 
he has acted on other occasions. William thinks as I think. That 
man grows in the esteem of his /trends, as his neighbor sinks into 
infamy. Here the man's manner of living is employed to indicate 
his manner of dying. His manner of acting on other occasions to 
indicate his manner of acting in this affair, &c. 

(5) We can invert the order of these propositions, and place 
the accessory first ; but then we must supply the word so before the 
principal proposition. Thus, As that man lived, so he died ; As I 
think, so William thinks. 

(6) In this form of compound propositions the word as, like what 
in adjective accessories, performs the function of an adverb both in the 
principal and accessory proposition, at the same time serving to in- 
dicate their connection. (7) As regards the thought, the real bond 
of connection is sameness or identity of manner. (8) That as performs 
the double function which we have ascribed to it, is obvious when 
we invert the compound proposition and are obliged to call in the 
services of so. 

(9) We may call this The Adverbial Accessory denoting Manner by 
Comparison; or, more briefly. The Accessory of Manner by Comparison. 

(10) In such expressions as, ffe acted as chairman of the meeting, 
we have perhaps an elliptical construction =^e acted to the meeting as 



(2) Whicti class of these do we first notice ? (3) Describe one of the different forms of 
this species of accessories. (4) Illustrate by examples. 

(5) What is said of inverting the order of these propositions ? Illustrate by examples. 

(6) What is said of the fuxictions of as in such compound propositions ? (7) What is 
said of the bond of connection in thouglvt f (8) How is it shown that as performs the double 
function attributed to it ? 

(9) How may we name this accessory ? 

(10) What is said of an elliptical construction ? Example for illustration. 



394 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 123. 

a chairman of a meeting acts. Some call as chairman^ &c. in sncli con- 
structions, a noun in apposition ; but improperly, as we think. 

We may here notice that there is an extension of this kind of 
construction to express sameness of time. This will be considered 
when we come to treat adverbial accessories of time, 

(11) Remaek. — This form of accessory, like most of the adverbial 
accessories, may be replaced, when the construction is fully expanded 
by an adjective accessory. In order to this we must supply 
in the principal proposition that for which as may be regarded as a 
substitute, namely, the noun and preposition modification in the 
manner., or in the same mannei\ and then add an adjective accessory. 
Thus, That man died est the same maistnee est which he lived., &c.* 

(12) Another form of this species of accessory describes the manner 
of the action (like the similar accessory which is applied to adjectives) 
by its effect. Thus, This man acts so., that all his friends are proud of 
him. Here we use so in the principal proposition, and that conjunctive 
to connect the accessory. (13) This form, when expanded, becomes 
identical with one of the forms of the accessories which modify 
adjectives. /S(9expanded=i?i such manner. Then the above example 
runs thus. This man acts in such mannee, that all his friends are proud 



* Sometimes an accessory denoting manner by comparison is apparently 
connected by two conjunctive words, as and if. For example, That boy acts 
AS IF he were irisane. He m.oaned as if he were in great pain. In construc- 
tions of this kind there is a suppression of a proposition between as and if. 
When we supply this suppression, the whole construction is clear. Thus, 
That hoy acts as he would act, or as o^^: would act, if he were insane. He 
moaned as he would moan if he were in great pain. The accessory proposi- 
tion here connected by as, when thus fully developed, is itself a compound 
proposition of the hypothetical form {see § 137), and the connection between 
the principal proposition and this compound accessory is exactly the same 
which we have been describing. In such cases, as may be considered as re- 
presenting the accessory proposition which is itself modified by the hypo- 
thetical accessory commencing with the conditional conjunction if. 

Instead of as if, as though is sometimes employed in the same manner, 
and with the same force. Examples, "He made as though he would have 
gone further." "It was as though it budded.'' "I will shoot three arrows 
on the side thereof, as though I shot at a mark." This form of expression 
may perhaps be regarded as antiquated. 

(11) Eepeat the substance of the remark, and illustrate by examples. 

(12) Describe another form of the accessory of manner. Give example. (13) With what 
other form of accessory does this become identified when expanded ? Illustrate by an ex- 
ample. 



§ 124.J ADVERBIAL ACCESSORIES OF PLACE. 395 

qfhim. Or, This man acts in a manistee such, that all his friends are 
proud of him. Here, that all Ms friends are proud of him is obviously 
an adverbial accessory modifying the determinative such. 

(14) We may distinguish this form by calling it the accessory 
denoting the manner of action by its effect or consequence ; or more 
briefly, The Accessory describing an Action hy its Effect. 

(15) Eemaek. — When we employ the infinitive abbreviation for an 
accessory proposition of this kind, we use (as in the accessory of like 
form which modities adjectives) as instead of that for conjunctive 
word ; thus, This man iehaved so^ as to gain the applause., or, so as to 
T)e applauded hy all his friends. 

Exercise. — Furnish examples of these constructions. 

§ 124. Adverbial Accessories employed to indicate the 
Circumstance of Place. 

(1) This class of accessories is usually connected with the prin- 
cipal proposition by the adverbs of place, where, luhence, whither, and 
their compounds formed with ever and so, wherever, wheresoever, 
whencesoever, whithersoever. (2) When so employed we call these 
words conju7ictive adverbs. (3) They are all of the family of the 
conjunctive (originally interrogative) pronouns ivho and what. (4) 
Used to introduce accessory propositions, they are all equivalent to 
a conjunctive pronoun and the noun ^^ace preceded by a preposition. 
In this respect they resemble the other adverbs. (5) Like what, they 
generally, though not always, perform the function of adverb, or of 
noun and preposition modification both for the principal and the 
accessory proposition, besides serving to indicate the relation between 
the two propositions. The conjunctive adverb marks as the 
accessory that proposition to which it is attached and which it in- 
troduces. 

We next proceed to class the accessory propositions oi place, and 
to show briefly the purposes which they serve in discourse. 



(14) By what name may we distinguish this accessory ? 

(15) Repeat the substance of the remark, and ilU;strate by an example. 

§ 124. (1) By what words are adverbial accessories of place connected with the principal 
proposition ? (2) What do we call these words when so used ? (3) What is said of the 
family and origin of these words ? (4) To what are they in this use of them equivalent ? 
(5) Mention the several functions which they serve in compomid propositions. 



396 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 124. 

(6) 1st. We give as a fii-st class of the adverbial accessories of 
place, those which serve to determine the place in luhich or at which 
what is predicated in the principal proposition exists; in other 
words, its local position ; or, to use a colloquial expression, the ivhere- 
ahouts of the main assertion. (7) We may call this The Adverhial 
Accessory of Locality. 

(8) The conjunctive word employed to connect these accessories 
is WHERE, when a definite place is indicated, wherever and where- 
soever when whatever place is designated. (9) Example, / live 
WHERE your friend lives. Here ivhere your friend lives determines 
the place where / live=I live in the place in which your friemd 
lives. (10) It is ob^dous from inspecting the expanded form of the 
construction here presented, that where represents and performs 
the functions of the noun and preposition complement in the 2^l(^ce 
in the principal, and of the conjunctive pronoun and preposition in 
which in the accessory proposition. (11) "^Mien the construction is 
thus expanded, the accessory becomes an adjective accessory propo- 
sition, modifying the word ^^ace in the principal proposition. (12) 
Where here performs functions precisely similar to those performed 
by WHAT (of which it is in fact merely the dative form) ; namely, 
those of a complement both in the principal and in the accessory, 
besides serving to indicate the connection and relation of the two 
propositions. 

(13) We give examples of the less definite form of this class of 
accessories. Iwill lodge wherever my friend determines to lodge. 
He will aMde wheresoever you may choose to command. Here the 
particular place is not atsolutely specif ed, but it is, as in the preceding 
case, determined so far as the description in the accessory can limit it. 
(14) The place described in the accessory in the first case is supposed 
to be fixed, and known to the speaker ; but the place described in the 
indefinite accessory is supposed to be yet unsettled, or, at least, yet 
unknown to the speaker. The accessory determines it to the extent 
of his ability. 

(6) Describe the first class of accessories of place. (7) What name is given to this class? 

(8) What conjunctive -svords serve to connect accessories of locality ? (9) Dlnstrate by 
an example. (10) Show what functions wheee performs in such constructions. (11) What 
does this accessory become when the construction is expanded ? (12) With what are the 
ftmctions performed by wheee compared ? 

(13) Furnish examples of the indefinite form of this class of accessories, and tell what is 



§ 124.] ACCESSORY OF DIRECTION TOWARDS PLACE. 397 

Eemaek. — (15) In all classes of these adverbial accessories of place, 
those which are to follow, as well as that which we have considered — 
IDENTITY OF PLACE, is the Teol doiid of connection (in thought) between 
the principal and the accessory proposition. It is this identity which 
adapts the accessory to modify or complete the principal in reference 
to the circumstance of locality — local position — or of direction towards, 
or direction from a place. 

(1 6) Sometimes where is employed in an accessory proposition to 
represent a noun of place expressed in the principal proposition. (17) 
In such cases where performs precisely the function of the pronoun 
conjunctive and preposition in which; and the accessory might with 
propriety be classed with the adjective accessory, since it simply serves 
to modify or determine the noun of place in the principal proposition. 
Example : He lives in the same place where his hrother lives=He lives 
in the place in which his brother lives. Here where his brother lives 
may be considered, and may be treated if we please, as an adjective 
accessory proposition, (18) That these two kinds of accessories — the 
adjective and the adverbial — are sometimes (or perhaps we should say 
very generally) resolvable into one another, or blended together, is not 
surprising, when we remember the intimate relation subsisting be- 
tween the functions of adverbs and adjectives, — all adverbs involving, 
as part of their function, the/unction^ and often, as part of their form, 
the form of an adjective. 

(19) When the principal proposition is placed after the accessory, 
which often happens, the adverb there is sometimes employed in the 
principal proposition to represent the place determined by the acces- 
sory. " That where I am, there ye may be also." 

The other accessories of place do not express local position but 
local direction, either towards, or from a place. We include in our 

(20) 2d class those which describe the place towards which 
the action predicated in the principal proposition is directed. (21) 
The conjunctive adverb distinctly appropriated to connect this class 
of accessories, when a definite known place is to be indicated, is 

said of the effect of the accessories in the examples, (14) State the difference between the 
two forms of accessory. 

(15) Repeat the substance of the remark, 

(16) How is where sometimes employed in accessories? (17) "What function does where 
thus used perform ? And how might the accessory be treated ? (18) What is said in re- 
ference to the fact that these two kinds of accessory are resolvable into one another? 

(19) What word is introduced in the principal proposition, when it follows the accessory ? 

(20) Describe the second class of accessories of place. (21) By what conjunctive word 



398 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 124. 

WHITHER. (22) We have said in speaking of where and whither in 
their original function of interrogatives {see § 92, note p. 291), that 
where has usurped the function of whither in addition to its own 
peculiar function. The same remark applies to where conjunctively 
used. It is now almost univereally employed in this as well as in the 
preceding form of accessory, and lohither^ which our forefathers em- 
ployed exclusively to express to or towards a place^ is nearly obsolete. 

(23) The same remark applies to the compound word lohither- 
soever, which was formerly used to express direction towards 
whatever place ; as, " I will follow thee vjhither soever thou goest." 
We would now say, wherever thou goest. Wheresoever is also 
rarely used in the current language of the present times. 

(24) 3d. We introduce, as a third class of the accessories of 
place, those which describe the place frojii which the action predi- 
cated in the principal proposition is directed. (25) These accessories, 
like those just considered, refer sometimes to a determinate known 
place, sometimes to one determined only by the accessory, but 
otherwise unlimited. 

(26) The conjunctive word employed for the first purpose (when a 
fixed locahty is to be designated) is whexce. Example : " This 
deliverance comes whexce every blessing Jiows.^'' Here the accessory, 
whence every blessing f.ows., determines the place from which the de- 
liverance comes. 

(27) The remarks which we made (see § 92, 7iote p. 291) in re- 
ference to the use of the preposition //'c-r/i before whence interrogative 
apply also to whence used as a conjunctive adverb, ^romisyerj gene- 
rally employed superfluously before the conjunctive whence. (28) The 
same objections apply to the use of the preposition before this word 
in both cases. (29) In the authorized version of the Bible, there are 
abundant examples of ichence conjunctive preceded by from.^ and a 
considerable number in which the more correct construction, without 
a preposition, is employed. 

•were these accessories originally preceded? (22) What is said of another word having 
usurped the place of xcMther ? 

(23) To what other -word does the same remark apply? 

(24) Describe a third class of accessories of place. (25) What division of this class ? 
(26) What conjunctive word is employed -with the first division ? Example. 

(2T) What is said of remarks which apply to whence ? (28) What is said of objections 
to the exp^e*.ion/>o;7^ icTieiice ? (29) Where may examples of this usage be found ? 



§ 124.] ACCESSORIES OF PLACE. 399 

(30) To indicate any 'place you plense from lohich we would 
now employ the words from whatever place. Example : He will 
come from whatever place his friend comes. Whencever and 
whencesoever may be regarded as obsolete. They may be found 
in our more ancient authors, and, perhaps, sometimes employed in 
accessories of this description. 

(31) We have already said that where is used as equivalent to in 
which to represent an antecedent noun. Whence equivalent to from 
which is employed for the same purpose. Examples : " Look to the 
rock whence ye are hewn." " I will return to my house whence I 
came." 

(32) The accessory propositions commencing with ichere and whi- 
ther are often placed before the principal proposition. In the older 
authors, we think, the accessory is most frequently placed first. Ex- 
amples : " Whither I go, ye cannot come." " Whither I go, thou canst 
not follow me now." '' Whither thou goest, I will go ; and where 
thou lodgest, I will lodge." " Where thou diest, will I die." 

Eemaek. — The observations made in reference to accessories com- 
mencing with what conjunctive (.see § 114 : 6, et seq.) apply to many of 
the accessories of place of the first and second classes. (33) When 
these accessories come after certain transitive verbs, which take an ac- 
cessory proposition for their objective modification, they might be 
treated as substantive accessories serving as objectives of these verbs, 
and analyzed in the manner recommended in treating the accessories 
connected by what. (34) We present examples : / hioio where yon 
have teen. " Let no man know tohere ye be." " Whither I go ye 
know." " We know not whither thou goest." In all these compound 
propositions the accessory may be regarded as a suistantive accessory 
serving as objective modification of the verb in the principal proposi- 
tion. (35) If we choose to supply the ellipsis it becomes an adjective 
accessory modification of the noun place — the implied objective mo- 
dification of the verb in the principal proposition. (36) As this mode 
of analysis will not suit when the verb in the principal proposition is 



(30) How do we describe an indefinite place/rom which ? Example. 

(31) What is said of whence = from which ? Examples. 

(32) Eepeat the remark about the accessories commencing with ^oJiere and wMiher. 
Examples. ' 

(33) How might the accessories of place of the first and second classes be treated, when 
they follow tran&itive verbs ? (34) Give examples, and apply the remark to them. (85) 
What other form do these assume when the ellipses are supplied ? (86) State the reason for 
treating them as adverbial accessories. 



400 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 125. 

neuter or intransitive (as it is in most of tlie examples given above), 
it will be more convenient to treat all tbese accessories of 'place as ad- 
verbial^ though it may be good to know the other forms into which 
some of them may be readily resolved. 

(37) Punctuatio:n^. — As may be seen from some of the examples 
introduced above, in which we have followed the original punctuation, 
accessories of locality are sometimes separated by interpunction from 
the principal proposition, and sometimes not. The accessory, when it 
precedes the principal proposition, is perhaps generally followed by a 
comma ; as, "Whither I go, ye cannot come." "When the accessory 
follows the principal proposition, we believe the comma is seldom in- 
serted. Here, as in other instances, the punctuation is not settled on 
fixed and consistent principles. If we would maintain consistency, 
we ought either to insert a comma always between the principal and 
the accessory, or we should never insert it. See Appendix on Punc- 
tuation. 

Exercises I., IL, III., &c. — Form compound propositions with ac- 
cessories expressing the place where., the place whither., the place 
whence ; also with the conjunctive words wherever., whithersoever., &c. 

§ 125. Adverbial Accessory Propositions Indicating the 
Circumstance of Time. — (1) We next proceed to consider that 
class of compound propositions in which the circumstance of time 
is the real bond of connection between the principal and its acces- 
sory. 

(2) Some of the accessories employed in this class of proposi- 
tions have a close analogy with those in which the circumstance of 
place is the bond of connection. We proceed to classify the acces- 
sories used to express the circumstance of time. 

1st. (3) We shall consider first those accessories which limit or 
modify the principal proposition, by the predication of some occur- 
rence falling within the same point of time with the matter of the 
principal assertion. (4) Examples : / will go with you to the exhi- 
hiiion WHEN / shall have finished my work. " Thou shalt talk of 
them when thou sittest in thine house," &c. " They linger about it 



(3T) State the substance of the remarks in reference to the punctuation of this descrip- 
tion of compound propositions. 

§ 125. (1) What class of propositions is now to be considered ? 

(2) To what other class are these analogous ? 

(3) Describe the first class of these accessories. (4) Furnish examples. (5) What 



§ 125.] ACCESSORIES OF TIME. COINCIDENT TIME. 401 

on the Sabbath, when the mind is disengaged from worldly cares." 
(5) The conjunctive adverb when is used to introduce such accesso- 
ries. (6) It indicates coincidence of time — the point in which the 
principal and accessory agree. This point of time, assumed as 
fixed in the accessory, serves to determine the time of what is as- 
serted in the principal proposition. Thus, in the examples, when I 
shall have finished my worh^ determines the time when / will go to 
the exhibition ; and " when thou sittest in the house," determines a 
time when the Israelites were to talk of those things which God had 
commanded through Moses. C?) We may call this the Accessory 
OF Coincident Time. 

(8) When, like where^ is of the family of who^ neuter what. It 
seems to us to be merely an inflection of who. The Anglo-Saxon 
accusative of hwa {who) is hwone or hwaene ; and hwaene is em- 
ployed adverbially, like when in modern English. It may, perhaps, 
be regarded as originally an accusative of time, the word time being 
suppressed, but at first clearly implied = in or at what (time). In 
modern use it has come by insensiMe extension, to be considered as 
directly expressing time. (9) When, like where, usually performs an 
adverbial function both in the principal and in the accessory proposi- 
tions, besides serving as a conjunctive word to indicate their con- 
nection and relation. Because it performs this last function, we call 
it a conjunctive adverl), as we have, for the same reason, named 
where, whither, &c., conjunctive adverbs. (10) When is therefore equi- 
valent to the words mor at the time in or at which (time), as may be 
found by expanding the above compound propositions; thus, I will go 
with you at the time, at which {time) I shall have finished my worTc. 
" Thou shalt talk of them" at or in the time in which "thou sittest," &c. 

(11) As in assertions modified by an accessory of place, the place is 
sometimes expressed in the principal proposition (see § 124 : 16, 18), so 
in the compound propositions under consideration, the word of time is 
often in the principal proposition, and when retained as the conjunctive 
word and adverbial modification of the accessory. Example : This 
event happened at a time when men least expected it. When is here equi- 

conjunctive word is employed ? (6) Describe its function in such cases, and illustrate by ex- 
amples. (7) What name may be given to this accessory? 

(8) Kcpeat what is said of the derivation of when. (9) Describe the functions which it 
performs ; and tell the name given to it in consequence of these functions. (10) To what is 
it said to be equivalent ? Illustrate by example. 

(11) What is said about a word of time being introduced? Illustrate by example. 

26 



402 STRUCTUEE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 125. 

Talent to in wMch., and when thns expanded, the accessory coincides 
with the adjective accessory.* 

(12) This kind of accessory also often takes precedence, in order of 
arrangement, of the principal proposition, so that here, as in the case of 
the accessories of place, the speaker or -vrriter is at liberty to choose the 
most striking or the most harmonious arrangement, as his own taste may 
direct. Example : " Wlien the morning calls again to toil, begin anew 
thy journey and thy life." Here, too, when the principal proposition 
comes after the accessory, the word the?i is sometimes employed in the 
principal to represent the time determined by the accessory. Thus, 
" TT/ie?! my father and my mother forsake me, the/i the Loed will take 
me up." 

(13) In this form of compound proposition, that takes place which 
occurs sometimes in other forms of compound propositions ; namely, 
the thought which logically is the principal, is expressed under the 
accessory form, and that which is logically subordinate usurps the form 
of principal proposition. This is a matter which properly lies within 
the sphere of the logician and the rhetorician, rather than within the 
province of the grammarian, whose business is with the/6»rm not the 
matter of discourse. Whatever has th.Qform of an accessory, is to be 
considered an accessory with the grammarian, without weighing nicely 
the comparative importance of the thought which it expresses, or the 
purpose for which a writer or speaker may on occasion choose to em- 
ploy it. (14) Still, it may prevent misconception to 'advert to this fact 
in reference to the use of accessories, and to present examples. " He 
was one evening sitting thus at his supper, when the landlord of a lit- 
tle inn in the village came into the parlor," &;c. = When "he was one 
evening," (fee, for " the landlord^ " &c., is logically the principal pro- 
position, and the first proposition serves only to determine the 



* As we use v:herever to introduce an accessory indicating an unsettled 
place — whatever place — so we employ whenever, when we intend to express 
coincidence with whoAever tinie ; as, "Whenever you choose to walk in the 
park I will accompany you. The coincident time in such cases is contingent 
or unsettled as regards the speaker, except so far forth as the accessory pro- 
position limits it. Whensoever was sometimes used for the same purpose by 
our old authors. Simple when is now often employed in expresshig coinci- 
dence with whatever time. 



(12) What is said in reference to the arrangement of this form of compound proposi- 
tions ? 

(13) Eepeat the remark in reference to the logical importance of the principal and acces- 
sory in this form of compound proposition. (14) Illustrate what has been said by examples. 



§ 125.] ACCESSORIES OP TIME. COINCIDENT TIME. 403 

time of the landlord's coming into the parlor. " I was hearing this 
account," 'continued the corporal/ '-'' lolien the youth came into the 
kitchen," &c. = When " I was hearing this account," &c. 

(15) Before leaving this particular form of accessory, we must ob- 
serve that it has by insensible extension (as we suppose) come to be 
used when there is either none or only a very slight reference to time. 

For example : " When we contemplate the close of life, who can 

avoid being touched with sensations at once awful and tender ?" = the 
assertion, nobody can avoid being touched, &c. We can express near 
ly the same sense by substituting for when the conjunctive word if^ 
wliich has no reference whatever to time ; thus, if we contemplate the 
close of life, &c., or we might express the same sentiment, perhaps 
somewhat awkwardly, by saying simply, contemplating the close of 
life, &c. The meaning obviously is, that what is asserted in the prin- 
cipal proposition is a consequence of what is asserted in the accessory. 
The consequence, or result of contemplating the close of life is, that 
we cannot avoid, &c. (16) This kind of accessory might, perhaps, 
with propriety be classed with the accessories of causality which we are 
soon to consider. Still it has evidenj;ly arisen from an insensible exten- 
sion of the accessory expressive of coincident time, and may be consi- 
dered as indicating the connection of a cause and its eifect by declaring 
their co-existence in time. (17) In such examples as, When the sun 
rises^ darhiess vanishes^ we may possibly discover the origin of this 
insensible extension. The rising of the sun, which is coincident in 
time with the vanishing of darkness, is also the cause of its vanishing. 
So in other cases the cause of an eifect is coincident in point of time 
with the appearance of the effect, and perhaps from this circumstance 
the relation of coincidence of time is used to indicate the relation of 
causality, which is found to accompany it. 

(18) We sometimes employ the conjunctive word as when we in- 
tend to express a still closer coincidence or limitation to a point of 
time. For example, John arrived as his brother departed. (19) Some- 
times Ave employ the word just with as to express more markedly li- 
mitation to the same point of time, as John arrived just as his brother 
departed. (20) That this form expresses closer limitation to the same 

(15) Repeat the substance of what is said about the eccfension of this form of accessory 
to other purposes, and illustrate by an example. (16) What further is said of the classifica- 
tion of the accessory thus used ? (17) Repeat the substance of the explanation given of the 
probable origin of this extension. 

(18) What other word is sometimes employed to connect this kind of accessory ? Give 
example. (19) What word is added to express more close coincidence ? (20) Illustrate the 
fact that as expresses closer coincidence than zvheji. 



404 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 126. 

moment than the form with the conjunctive when will appear, if we 
substitute when for as in the above example. Thus John arrwed when 
Ms 'brother departed^ might mean that John arrived about the time of 
his brother's departure — perhaps a little after, perhaps a little before ; 
but the form with as expresses the exact coincidence of the arrival 
and departure, and that with just as the same thing still more empha- 
tically. 

(21) Another form of accessory, related to this as expressing coin- 
cidence of time, is that used to indicate that an event succeeded im- 
mediately on the completion of another. The conjunctive words 
used for this purpose are, as soon as ; thus, He came to see me, as soon 
AS he arrived. This is more properly classed with the accessory expres- 
sive of equal intensity employed with adverbs as well as adjectives. 
Thus, we say, as quicMy as, as rapidly as, as suddenly as, &c., (see 
§120.) 

(22) The accessory of coincident time is often separated from 
the principal by a comma, but the punctuation is unsettled. 

Exercise. — Furnish examples of compound propositions having 
accessories expressing the limitation of coincident time. 

§ 126. 2d. (1) We give, as a second class of accessories of time, 
those which limit or modify the principal proposition, by predicating 
something falling within the same peiiod of time — a period regarded 
as having duration in opposition to a point or moment of time. (2) 
We may call this the accessory of coincident duration. (3) The con- 
junctive words employed for this purpose are while and whilst. 
(4) While was originally a noun and meant much the same as 
the word time ; but never being employed as subject noun in the 
language of the present day, it has come to be classed with the 
adverbs. This word is really, however, the case of a noun, and is 
still often employed to express the accusative of time ; as, We 
remained a while with them, or, We remained a long while with 
them. Here the determinative and descriptive adjectives applied to 
this word indicate plainly to what class it belongs. The genitive of 
this word whiles was formerly used as we now use while, and whilst 
to express duration of time. 

(21) What is said of another form of accessory used for nearly the same purpose ? (22) 
Punctuation ? 

§ 126. (1) Describe the second class of accessories of time. (2) By what name may we 
call them ? (3) What conjunctive words are employed in this case ? (4) Give the substance 
of what is said of while. 



§ 126.] ACCESSORIES OF TIME. COINCIDENT DURATION. 405 

(5) Whilst (or wliilest as it is often found written in old authors) 
appears to be a corruption of the old genitive whiles. Whiles is still 
found in the language down till the seventeenth century. It is now 
obsolete, and even whilst is seldom used in modern writings. 

(6) We subjoin examples of compound propositions involving this 
species of accessory. " Seek ye the Lord while He may be found." 
" Agree with thine adversary quickly whiles thou art in the way with 
him." " While his humble grave is preparing, ****** it is good for 
us to think that this man too was our brother." 

" Whilst all the stars that round her burn, 
And all the planets, in their turn. 
Confirm the tidings as they roll," &c. 

(7) In ancient times the determinative the was occasionally pre- 
fixed to whilst. 

" The whilst in ocean Phoebus dips his wain." 

(8) While^ like what^ performs a function both for the principal 
and tlie accessory in a compound proposition. (9) A word of time, 
which is sometimes employed in the principal proposition of the pre- 
ceding class, and referred to by when., is rarely, if ever, introduced in this 
class of compound propositions. (10) The reason of this difference per- 
haps is that when is originally only an adjective having the word time 
implied, but while (itself a substantive) originally meant time. Were 
we to say, as in the case of when^ at or in the time, lohile, there would 
be an awkward repetition of a word of equivalent meaning. And let 
us remember that to our forefathers this awkwardness would have 
appeared much greater than to us, since the original meaning of while 
was more familiar to them. 

(11) During the time is an equivalent expression for while. Ex- 
ample: He was writing DURiNa the time his brother was reading. 
During the time, we consider here an instance of the case adsolute — a 
form of contracted accessory to come under our notice below. In the 
example we have really three propositions. He was writing while 
the time dured (lasted) that his hr other was reading. 

(12) The word while may also be expanded into the phrase, and 



(5) Repeat what is said of whilst and whiles. 

(6) Furnish examples of compound propositions having this kind of accessories. 
(T) Describe an ancient usage in regard of whilst. 

(8) What functions does while perform ? '(9) Is a word of time used along with it as 
with when? (10) Exp'ain the reason for not using a word of time with while. 

(11) Mention an equivalent expression for while, and give an example, and explain the 
construction. 

(12) What other phrase may be substituted for xohile ? 



406 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 127. 

at the same time. Thus, " He can live to God and his own sonl, and, 
at the same time attend to all the lawful interests of the present world." 
Here a co-ordinate proposition serves the purpose of an accessory. 
(See § 146 : 5, et seq.) 

(13) We believe that this form of accessory is sometimes extended, 
to express, like the preceding class, the relation of causality ; but after 
what we have said alread}^ of such insensible extension.^ this need not 
perplex the learner. 

(14) The punctuation here again is unsettled. 

Exercises I., IL, &c. — Furnish examples of this kind of compound 
propositions. 

§ 127. 3d. (1) We may rank as a third class of the accessories 
of time those which determine the time of the action or event ex- 
pressed in the principal proposition by reference to something which 
succeeded it, or, in other words, by some action or event which that 
asserted in the principal proposition preceded. (2) This kind of 
accessory is united to the principal proposition by the preposition 
BEFORE. (3) Some call before^ when thus employed, an adverb; 
but it is used in this case with exactly the same force, as when the 
grammarians agree in calling it a preposition. (4) The only dif- 
ference is that in the one case it is followed by a noun, in the other 
by a proposition, which (when considered apart from the preposition) 
is substantively used, (o) Hence this, and some of the accessories 
of time which follow, might with propriety be treated as substantive 
accessory p)ro2JOSitions ivith a 2yreposition, in a manner analogous to 
the noun and p)reioosition modification. (6) We shall call before., 
and other prepositions below, when they precede an accessory, pre- 
positions conjunctively employed. 

(7) We propose the following as examples of compound proposi- 
tions involving this species of accessory. They set out on their journey 
BEFORE the sun rose. I must finish my worh before / can go. " Doth 
our law judge any man before it hear him ?" Sometimes the acces- 
sory., as in many other forms of compound propositions, precedes the 



(13) Repeat the remark about the extension of this form of accessory. 

(14) What is said of punctuation? 

§ 127. ( 1 ) Describe a third class of accessories of time. (2) What word is employed to 
connect these ? (3) What is said of calling lefore in such cases an adverb ? (4) What is 
the difference between before thus employed and before preposition f (5) How might this 
accessory be treated ? (6) What shall we call before thus used ? 



§ 128.] ACCESSORIES OF TIME. SUBSEQUENCE. 40*7 

principal; as, '-'• Before I was afflicted I went astray." (8) These 
compound propositions are equivalent to, They set out on their journey 
'before the time in which the sun i^ose. " Before the time in which / was 
ajflicted I went astray^'' &c. Here we find the original accessory re- 
solved into the noun time^ modified by an adjective accessory propo- 
sition, and preceded by the preposition before. (9) The words. Before 
tJie sun rose are thus grammatically considered a contracted form for 
a preposition and a noun modified by an adjective (in this case an 
adjective accessory) ; and this is precisely what most adverbs are equiva- 
lent to. (See § 92 : Y.) Hence we have classed this and other forms 
similarly resolvable as adverbial accessories. 

(10) The connection of these forms of construction, with the noun 
and preposition modification^ or, rather, the fact that the word before is 
in such constructions really a preposition, may be illustrated by intro- 
ducing a slight change in the form of the first example, without afi'ecting 
the sense ; thus. They set out on their journey befoee the eising of the 
sun. Here we express the same thing by a noun and preposition modi- 
fication, which is expressed above by an accessory proposition. JSTow 
we ask what is the difference between the use of the word before here 
and in the example first given ? Does it belong to a distinct class of 
words in the one use from that to which it belongs in the other ? 

(11) We may call the accessory now considered. The adverbial acces- 
sory^ indicating the precedence in time of the fact asserted in the princi- 
pal proposition. More briefly. The Accessoet of Peecedence in Time. 

(12) This accessory is not generally separated by a comma from 
the principal. 

Exeecise.— Furnish compound propositions of this form. 

§ 128. 4th. (1) There is a fourth class of these accessories of 
time exactly similar in form to the preceding class, but indicating 
subsequence or posteriority in point of time. (2) In these accessories 
the prepositions after and since serve conjunctively. (3) Examples : 
John arrived after his brother departed. John arrived since his 
b7'other departed. Both accessories express the subsequence of the 
fact asserted in the principal proposition. (4) When we use after 

(7) Produce the examples. (8) Illustrate the manner of resolving these compound pro- 
positions into compounds of another form. (9) What Is shown by this resolution ? 

(10) Illustrate the fact that the word before performs the same function before acces- 
sories as it does before nouns. 

(11) Give a name to this accessory. (12) Punctuation ? 

§ 128. (1) What is said of the fourth class of accessories of tim.e ? (2) What conjunctive 
words are used to connect them ? (3) Furnish examples. (4) State the distinction drawn 
between the accessory connected by after, and the accessory connected by since? 



408 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 129. 

we indicate subsequence to another event near in point of time (sub- 
sequence to a proximate event) predicated by the accessory. When, 
on the contrary, we use since^ we have reference to the portion of time 
which has elapsed from the event predicated by the accessory ; and 
we assert that at any point in this period, near to or distant from 
the time indicated by the accessory, the principal event may have 
happened. 

(5) Sometimes the accessory with since seems to indicate a refer- 
ence, not to a point in the period elapsed as above, but to the whole 
continuous period from the moment of the event indicated by the 
accessory till that of making the principal assertion. (This seeming 
reference to the whole intervening time depends, perhaps, rather on 
the nature of the principal proposition than on the form of the acces- 
sory.) Thus, John has heen successful sixce he commenced lousiness for 
himself. That man has 'been faithful since he has been in my service. 

(6) Since is sometimes employed in a way in which it is apparent- 
ly equivalent to the word ago ; thus, It is five years since I saw that 
man. This is nearly, but not precisely equivalent to, / saw that man 
five years ago. In the form given in the example, we dwell on the 
consideration of the lengtli of time passed from the period at which 
we saw the man. In the other this is not brought under consideration. 
The example first given is equivalent to. Five whole years ham passed 
from the time in which I saw that man. 

(7) After is sometimes followed by that ; as, " After that I have 
spoken, mock on." This form of expression is now antiquated. The 
words the time are perhaps here suppressed between after and that. 

(8) Punctuation. — The same as in the preceding construction. 
In neither completely settled. In both, when the accessory precedes, 
a comma is usually inserted. 

Exercise. — Furnish compound propositions constructed according 
to the model presented in the examples. 

§ 129. 5th. (1) There is a fifth form of these accessories of 
time which limits the principal assertion by expressing an anticipated 



(5) What further is said of the use of since ? 

(6) What is said of since used nearly in the sense of ago?- 

(J) By -what word is afier sometimes followed? And what is said of this construction ? 

(8) Punctuation? 

§ 129. (1) Describe a fifth class of accessories of time. (2) What words connect these, 



§ 129.] ACCESSORIES OP TIME. GENERAL REMARKS. 409 

event to wliicli it has reference and in which it terminates. (2) The 
words used to connect and indicate this species of accessory are 
the prepositions till and until. When thus used, we may call 
them prepositions conjunctively employed. 

(3) Examples : You will remain here till, or until I return. He 
must not depart till the courier arrives. "All the days of my 
appointed time will I wait, till my change come." "Go thou thy way 
till the end be." " The people will not eat until he come." (4) 
Here the anticipated event (expressed in the accessory) which the 
principal assertion regards, and in which it terminates, is future at the 
time of speaking, because the main assertion itself has reference to the 
future. (5) But when the main assertion has reference to the past, 
the anticipated event expressed in the accessory, though future at the 
time to which the assertion refers, may be past when the assertion is 
uttered. Example : " I was wandering in a beautiful and romantic 
country, till curiosity began to give way to weariness," &c. (6) "We 
may call this The accessory limiting ly an event in a7iticipation ; or, for 
the sake of brevity. The Accessory of Anticipation. 

(7) Punctuation. — When the accessory is strictly limiting, a comma 
is not inserted ; when, as in the last example and the third above, it does 
not limit strictly, a comma is used. 

(8) We need not repeat the observations made in reference to the 
accessory indicating precedence of time. The observations were in- 
tended to apply to all those accessories which are connected with the 
principal assertion by means of prepositions. 

Exercise. — Furnish examples of this form of compound proposi- 
tions. 

Remarks. — (9) Before passing from the consideration of the ad- 
verbial accessories of time^ we may notice that co-existence and im- 
mediate subsequence in point of time are sometimes indicated by the 
co-ordinate construction of propositions. Example : 

" Up rose the sonne, and up rose Emilie." — Chauc. 
This is equivalent to Emily rose., lohen the sun rose., or as the sun rose., 
or immediately after the sun rose. But more of this hereafter when 
we come to treat of co-ordinate construction. (See § 146.) 

and what is said of these words ? (8) Give examples. (4) Repeat the remark in reference 
to these examples. (5) What is said of the case when the main assertion refers to the past ? 
Illustrate by an example. (6) What may we call this class of accessories ? (7) Punctua- 
tion? 

(8) What observations apply to this class of accessories, and others preceded by prepo- 
sitions ? 

(9) Repeat what is said of another way of expressing coincidence of time. 



410 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 130. 

(10) We may also notice here, what we shall have occasion to no- 
tice at more length presently, that accessories of time are sometimes 
apparently introduced by two separate conjunctive words. We have 
an example in the following lines of Milton ; 

" As when Alcides from (Echaha crowned 
AYith conquest, felt the envenomed robe," &c. 

(11) The two conjunctive words as and wJien here perform sepa- 
rate and distinct functions, that is they connect, not the same, but 
different pairs of propositions. As indicates a comparison with the 
preceding facts, and connects a compound accessory of manner, of 
Avhich the principal proposition being clearly implied is suppressed, 
and only the accessory part of this compound accessory proposition 
of manner is expressed. If we supply the words it Tiappened or some 
similar proposition after «s, we shall see clearly the nature of the 
construction and the distinct functions of the conjunctive words; 
thus, AS it Jicqypened^ or, as happened, whex Alcides^ &c. 

■ § 130. (]) We next proceed to consider a numerous class of 
accessoiy propositions which have been called by some of the 
German grammarians accessories of causality. (2) The leading ac- 
cessories of this general class assig-n a cause or reason for the 
assertion in the principal proposition ; and hence the name given to 
them. Some of the accessories thus classed come properly within 
this designation, others we think it better to arrange under more 
distinctive names. "^ 



•^ This class of accessories, and all the classes generally which follow, 
affect the whole proposition to which they are attached, not the subject or 
predicate separately, or any single word in them. In this they are distinct 
from the preceding classes, which usually modify some word either expressed 
or implied in the principal proposition. We shall find too that their gram- 
matical connection with the principal proposition is, at least in some cases, 
much more loose. Some of them as we shall presently see, though, perhaps, 
entitled to the name of accessory propositions, are scarcely to be considered 
as dependent, siibordmate, or modifying propositions. They are, indeed, sub- 
joined to other propositions, and may on this accoxint be called accessories, 
but they express an independent thought. They may be considered perhaps as 
forming an intermediate class between subordinate and co-ordinate, or modi- 
fying and completely independent propositions. 

(10) What other remark is made about accessories of time ? Illustrate by example. 
(11) Explain the distinct usee of the two conjunctive words. 

§ 130. (1) What general name is given to the class of accessories next to be considered ? 
(2) What remarks are made in reference to this general class ? 



§ 130.J ADVERBIAL ACCESSORIES OF CAUSALITY. 411 

1st. (3) We shall consider first those which are more strictly 
accessories of causality, which express literally a cause for what is 
asserted in the principal proposition. (4) These we shall distinguish 
by the name of causal adverbial accessories, or adverbial 
ACCESSORIES OF CAUSALITY, (s) The conjuuctivc word most 
generally employed in introducing these and expressing their pe- 
culiar relation to the principal proposition is because. 

(6) "We proceed to illustrate the form and use of this accessory by 
examples. / carmot go tcith you, because / have not time. The ac- 
cessory / have not time is here evidently introduced for the purpose of 
expressing the cause for which / cannot go with you. (7) This kind 
of accessory is often arranged by our more ancient authors before the 
principal proposition which it completes. Examples : " Because thou 
hast done this, thou art cursed," &c. "Because I live, ye shall live 
also." It is most usual in modern English to place the accessory after 
the principal in such compound propositions. 

(8) The word 'because may be regarded as a noun and preposition 
(= ty cctuse) modifying the verb in the principal proposition. (9) When 
because is thus regarded, the accessory which follows it is properly 
speaking an apposition complement to the noun cause. We may illus- 
trate this by reference to the first example; thus, I cannot go by {a or 
the) cause expressed in the accessory ; namely, / have not time = / 
cannot go, I have not time is the cause. (10) That is sometimes 
(though rarely, we think, by correct speakers or writers) introduced 
after because ; thus, / cannot go, because that / have not time. 
(11) When this rather clumsy form of expression occurs, that is to be 
regarded as a determinative placed before the accessory used substan- 
tively in ap)position with cause. 

(12) For because we can ^xah^XAintQ for the or this reason that ; thus, 
I cannot go with you, for this eeasois^, that I have not time. Here 
the accessory preceded by the determinative is to be regarded as an 
apposition modification to the noun reason. 

(13) Other words besides because are sometimes used to introduce 

(3) Describe the subdivision first to be considered. (4) By what name do we distinguish 
them ? (5) What is the conjunctive word most frequently employed ? 

(6) Give examples. (7) What is said of arrangement ? Example. 

(8) What is said of the word because ? (O) What does the accessory become, when te- 
cawse is thus regarded? Illustrate. (10) What word is sometimes introduced after lie- 
cause f (11) How is that, when thus introduced, to be regarded ? 

(12) What phrase can be substituted for Jjecause ? 

(13) What other words, besides 'because, are used to indicate causality ? Illustrate. 



412 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ ] 31. 

a causal accessory. Among these we may enumerate since^ seeing tliat^ 
as, whereas. We might substitute any of these conjunctive expres- 
sions for decause in the above examples without much change of the 
sense, though some of them would give an antiquated appearance to 
the/6>?'OT of the language. Thus, / can7iot go, singe / have not time. 
I cannot go, seeing or seeing that I have not time.^ 

(14) These conjunctive words differ from because in this, that the}^ 
intimate that the cause assigned in the accessory is manifest — apparent 
to the party addressed. (15) Thus, / cannot go, since or seeing that 
I have not time, is equivalent to I cannot go, the reason is apparent to 
yourself, viz. ; / have not time, or / cannot go, you see I have not time. 
Using as we say, / cannot go, as / have not time. (16) This may be 
regarded as a less formal, less forcible way of alleging a cause for not 
going. (17) With the conjunctive whereas, we say whereas / have 
not time, I cannot go. When this word is used, the accessory comes 
first. But whereas is now seldom employed except in contracts and 
formal papers. 

(18) Punctuation. — Here a comma is inserted between principal 
and accessory. 

Exercises. — Furnish examples of this construction. 

§ 131. 2d. (1) There is a species of accessory very similar to 
the last, sometimes interchanging place with it, in which the pre- 
position FOR serves chiefly as the conjunctive word. (2) The 
proper use of this species of accessory seems to be to express a 
reason — an argument to enforce the assertion in the principal pro- 
position ; in other words, to express a logical cause. (3) We do 
not think that /or conjunctive (that is employed before an accessory) 
is entirely restricted to cases in which the cause is of a logical nature, 



* Since in this sense and seeing may be regarded as different forms of 
the same word. It is not so certain that since, which we have had occasion 
to notice in treating of accessories of time, and which means from a definite 
time onward or doivn is exactly the same word, though agreeing now in form. 
(See Diversions of Purley on these words. R. Taylor's Ed. p. 144.) 



(14) How do these conjunctive words differ from because f (15) Illustrate by examples, 
(16) How may this mode of expression be regarded? (17) What is said of the use of the 
word whereas f (18) What is the usage as to punctuation ? 

§ 131. (1) Describe another form of accessory similar to the preceding, and tell the con- 
junctive word. (2) What is the proper use of this accessory ? (8) What is said in reference 
to its restriction to this use ? 



§ 131.] ARGUMENTATIVE ACCESSORIES. 413 

or what is properly called a reason. Our older authors, we think, 
sometimes use it where modern usage would demand because.^ 

(4) Upon the whole, we think that foe conjujictive is now seldom 
employed for any other purpose except that of assigning a reason. 
We select a few examples for the purpose of illustration. (5) We 
can find the most abundant examples of this use of for in the 
writings of the apostle Paul as rendered in our authorized translation, 
(6) In the translation, we find conjunctive for used only, as far as we 
recollect, to introduce an argument — a reason for some preceding as- 
sertion, or statement of doctrine embracing perhaps numerous propo- 
sitions. (7) It is often used in the commencement of a new sentence 
to indicate the connection between it and the preceding discourse. 
(8) " In all these things we are more than conquerors, through him 
that loved us. For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, &c., 
shall be able to separate us from the love of God." Here for intro- 
duces the apostle's reason, or argument to corroborate the assertion, 
'"'' In all these things we are more than conquer or s^ (9) We extract 
another short passage from the Epistle to the Romans, in which there 
are five examples of this species of accessory. " For with the heart 
man believeth unto righteousness ; and with the mouth confession is 
made unto salvation. For the scripture saith, Whosoever believeth on 
him shall not be ashamed. For there is no difference between the 
Jew and the Greek • for the same Lord over all is rich unto all that 
call upon him. For whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord 
shall be saved." (10; The first for indicates the purpose of the first 
proposition quoted; namely, that of an accessory to corroborate the 
sentiments uttered in the preceding verses. The purpose served by 



* For is sometimes employed as a simple preposition (that is, before a 
single noun as opposed to an accessory proposition), in assigning a physical 
cause, though this is only one purpose for which it is employed, and perhaps 
the purpose for which it is now most rarely employed. Thus, He acts so for 
fear ; He cannot do so for shame, for pride, (fee. It is now more common to 
use another form of expression in such cases ; thus, He acts so because of fear, 
THROUGH /«?ar, or, On account of fear, according to the particular manner in 
which the word year maybe modified. 



(4) Repeat the opinion given in reference to the use of foe coninnctive. (5) Where 
may we find abundant exam])les of this use of for to connect an accessory? (6) What is 
said of the use of for in the authorized translation ? (7) For wliat purpose is it said to be 
often employed ? (8) Adduce examples for illustration. (9) Present a written copy of the 
passage from Romans in which for occurs five times. (lOj Show the use of each of these 



414 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 131. 

for in other parts of the extract can be discovered without reference 
to any thing beyond what it contains. (11) '•'• For^fov this cause pay 
ye tribute also." Here the first /<??' is conjunctive^ the second 2i prepo- 
sition. When the passage is arranged in a different order, the con- 
struction is perfectly clear. For ye pay tribute for this cause. 
(12) Though the word cause occurs in this accessory, the proposition 
as a whole expresses a recLsoi^ not a cause as distinguished from a 
reason. 

(13) For is often followed by other conjunctive words. "When this 
occurs, the student wiU take notice that the two conjunctive words in- 
troduce (except they form a compound conjunction) two distinct ac- 
cessories. (14) We often find for followed by if sometimes by icTien. 
Examples, " For., (/"Abraham were justified by works, he hath where- 
of to glory." Let us change the arrangement, and it will become 
manifest that the two conjunctive words belong to, and introduce dis- 
tinct propositions. Thus, Foe AbraJiam JiatJi whereof to glory., if Tie 
were (was) justified hy worTis. " For.^ wlien ye were the servants of sin, 
ye were free fi'om righteousness," = Foe ye were free from righteous- 
ness., WHEN ye were the servants of sin. (15) We find sometimes three 
conjunctive Avords together, each introducing a distinct accessory. 
Example : '•'•For., if lohen we were enemies, we were reconciled to God 
by the death of his Son ; much more, being reconciled, we shall be 
saved by his life." Here for introduces the whole compound accessory, 
having connection especially with the main or leading proposition in this 
compound accessory, " much more, being reconciled, we shall be saved 
by his life." 7;^ introduces the proposition " we were reconciled by the 
death of his Son " — an accessory to the main proposition just men- 
tioned; and when introduces the proposition before which it imme- 
diately stands, " we were enemies," which is an accessory to " if we 
were reconciled to God," &c. So that this last is the accessory of a 
compound accessory of a main compound accessory. If we arrange 
the passage in the following order, the student will readily see the 
functions which the several conjunctive words perform. Foe, Iteing 
reconciled to God., we shall much more l)e saved 'by the life of his Son., 
IF ice were reconciled dy his death, when we were enemiies. (16) The 



conjunctive foes, viz., the propositions which they connect. (11) Give an example with 
two consecutive fobs. Explain it (12) Repeat the remark about the word cause. 

(13) What is said of cases in which foe is followed by other conjunctions? (14) By what 
C(y>ij unctions is for often followed ? Write the two examples, and, with them before you, 
explain the connection. (15) Write out the example commencing with three conjunctions, 
and explain the connection of the passage. (16) Repeat the substance of the remarks which 
follow. 



§ 131.] ARGUMENTATIVE ACCESSORIES. 415 

reader will observe how vastly inferior this arrangement is to that of 
the translators in energy, and even in perspicuity. This may teach 
us to appreciate the skill of the translators (Wiclif is the leader, fol- 
lowed by Tyndale, Cranmer, &c.), and the importance and difficulty of 
the art of arranging language, so as to express our thoughts with 
clearness and with force. It will be seen that it was not without rea- 
son that three conjanctive words are huddled together in this con- 
struction. Still this huddling together of conjunctive words, though 
here employed for good purpose, is not to be imitated, without the 
most urgent reasons.* 

(17) We may call this species of accessory, The Aegumentative 
AccEssoFvT. By argumentative in this case we mean that which assigns 
a reason or argument. 

(18) Punctuation. — Such accessories are usually separated from 
their principal by a comma, if not, as in many of the above examples, 
by a greater point. 

We may notice some compounds of for, which are used, especially 
in older writers, to serve nearly similar purposes with /6>r conjunctive. 

(19) We may enumerate forasmuch as^for that^for why^ among these. 

(20) The accessory which originally followed forasmuch as, was, no 
doubt, a sort of Accessory of the Comparison of Equality, indicating 
that the principal assertion had an equal extent with the assertion in 
the accessory. But this form of expression has now come insensibly 
to indicate a reason, perhaps sometimes a cause, in the same way 
as the accessory with since or seeing that has come to do the same 
thing. This accessory, with forasmuch as, has the same form with 
the Accessory of Equal Intensity (much being the adjective compared), 
only that for is introduced before the as which precedes the adjec- 
tive.f 



* It would form a useful grammatical exercise to select a number of pas- 
sages similar to those above, and then ascertain which proposition each con- 
junctive word serves to introduce. Abundant examples can be found in the 
same treasury from which we have selected the above specimens. 

t If we admit that much is here substantively employed (that is, has a 
noun implied, which it certainly has), the form exactly coincides with the 
following, in which the accessory is evidently of the class to which we have 

(17) By what name may we call this accessory ? 

(18) Remark on punctuation. 

(19) Enumerate some compounds of fok used by old writers for similar purposes. (20) 
Repeat the substance of what is said about the accessory which follows forasmuch «>«, 
illustrating by examples. Write the examples. 



416 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 131. 

Examples : " Forasmuch as I know that thou hast been of many- 
years a judge unto this nation, I do the more cheerfully answer for 
myself," = Since^ or seeing that I know, &c. The accessory, " Foras- 
much as I know," &c., expresses the apostle's reason for more cheerfully 
answering for himself; or, if you please, the ccmse that he more cheer- 
fully answered for himself, but a logical^ not a physical cause. '" Be 
ye steadfast, unmovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, 
forasmuch as ye know that your labor is not in vain in the Lord," 
= Since ye hnoio, &c., in the Greek simply Tcnowing that. Here the 
accessory follows the principal proposition ; in the former example it 
preceded it. 

(21) We also meet with Forasmuch then as = therefore since., or 
therefore if. For example, " Forasmuch then as we are the offspring 
of God, we ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold," 
&c. = Theeefoee sestce we are the offspring^ &c. Both then in the 
example and therefore in our substitute belong to, and connect the 
second proposition, or rather the whole compound proposition, " we 
ought not," &c., with the preceding discourse. "Forasmuch as we 
are the offspring of God " is the accessory in this compound propo- 
sition. 

(22) These accessories which commence with forasmuch as., are 
represented in some of the other versions by accessories commencing 
with because., since., and in Wiclif (Luke xix. 9), hj for that. 

(23) Inasmuch as is also employed nearly in the same way, but re- 
taining more similarity to the accessory of Equal Intensity. (See Ex. 
Heb. vii. 20.) 

(24) In Wiclif 's translation, as above noticed, we have for that 
= since or hecause., and in James iv. 15, our translators have employed 
for that as equivalent to therefore. " For that ye ought to say," &c. 
= Therefore ye ought to say. The word thenxfore in fact is/or that 
inverted ; since there is simply the dative feminine corresponding to 
that., now used as of all genders. The dative there is used because 



given the name of accessories of equal intensity. It is outrageous for as 
RICH A MAif AS you are to oppress the poor ; or, for a man as rich, &c. "We 
believe this is English, though so would be more proper before the adjective 
than as ; at all events, the example will serve the purpose of illustration. 

(21) Eepeat in substance what is said of forasmuch then as. Illustrate by examples, 

(22) Eepeat the remark about accessories y^iVa forasmuch as. 

(23) Eemark in reference to inasmuch as f 

(24) Eepeat the remarks in reference to for that, and therefore, and show the relation 
between these expressions. 



§ 132.] ACCESSORY OF EFFECT. 4l7 

in the Anglo-Saxon, the preposition for takes a dative or accusative 
with it. Therefore^ more properly written therefor =for there = mo- 
dern /or that. 

(25) In that is used to connect accessories of similar import. Ex- 
amples : " Thou hast shamed this day the faces of all thy servants * * * 
in tliat thou lovest thine enemies," &c. == Because thou lovest thine 
enemies, &c. " And was lieard in that he feared." This is intended, 
we presume, to mean 'because he feared. (Marginal reading " For his 
pietie ;" Wiclif, "and was herd for his reverence;" Tyndale, "was 
also hearde because of his godliness.") 

(26) For that and in that may be considered obsolete as conjunc- 
tions. The accessories in which they occur may be treated as substan- 
tive accessories preceded by that determinative, having the preposi- 
tions /or and in prefixed with the same force as when they are pre- 
fixed to nouns. (27) This is the ultimate result of a thorough an- 
alysis of this sort of accessories, and it is best and perhaps easiest 
to come to this at once, especially in cases which are rare of 
occurrence or not to be found except in ancient authors. Accessories 
which are of frequent recurrence we may class, and bring under a for- 
mula and a denomination, to which we may refer without the trouble 
of having recourse in every case to complete analysis. 

Example. — Furnish examples of compound propositions with ar- 
gumentative accessories. 

§ 132. There is a kind of accessories which it may be useful to 
consider in connection with the causal and argumentative accessories, 
because by contrast they may serve to illustrate each other. (1) 
Instead of expressing a cause or a reason the class we are about to 
consider express an effect or a consequence. (2) Like the causal, 
they are of two species. (3) One species exhibits the effects which 
proceed from physical causes^ the other the conclusions or inferences 
deduced from arguments or reasonings. (4) The word therefore is 
much used in introducing both these species of accessories. (5) 
"We may call the first The Accessory of Effect, the second The Acces- 
sory of Inference. 

(25) What is said of the use of in that ? Illustrate by example. 

(26) How may /or that and in that be considered ? How may the accessories which 
they connect be treated when they occur? (27j Eepeat the remark. 

§ 182. (1) Describe, generally, another class of accessories. (2; How many species of 
these ? (3) Distingtxish these two species. (4) What word is employed to connect them ? 
(5) By what names may we call them ? 
2 



418 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§132. 

(6) "We submit examples of the accessory of effect. Tliis farm 
is carefully cultivated, therefore it is productive. The soil in this 
place is good therefore the trees grow large. (7) The first proposition 
in both examples expresses a 2^hy^^(^<^^ cause to which that expressed 
in the subjoined propositions (which for the time we call accessories) 
is ascribed. Cause — the soil is good ; effect — the trees grow large. " I 
believed, therefore have I spoken." Here again is a physical though 
immaterial cause — a cause acting through the medium ot the human mind. 

(8) We can in all such cases employ the causal form of accessory 
to express nearly the same meaning, by making what we have here 
regarded for the time being as the accessory the principal in a new 
compound proposition, and giving the principal, or what we have 
been above regarding as p)rincipal, the form and accompaniment of 
an accessory of cause. Thus, This farm is productive, because it is 
carefully cultivated. The trees groio large in this place, -b^ga-VSE. the 
soil is good. I have spoken, because / ielieved. 

(9) Again, we have many examples in which the one proposition 
assumes the form of the accessory of cause, and the other the form Oi 
what we have been calling the accessory of eftect. (10) Thus, '■'■ Be- 
cause sentence against an evil work is not executed speedily, therefore 
the heart of the sons of men is fully set in them to do evil." The 
question here presents itself, which of these propositions shall we 
consider accessory ? Both have accessory forms, or, at least, the form 
which a proposition assumes when it is to be connected with another. 
"We think that the proposition which expresses the effect is to be con- 
sidered the principal one. It is so logically, and grammar and logic 
should be exhibited as accordant, w^hen it is possible to do so, without 
straining the construction of language or the laws of thought. 

(11) It seems to follow from what w^e have now said, that what 
we call the accessory of effect is not properly a subordinate or merely 
onodifying proposition ; but either, as in the last example, the prin- 
cipal proposition, or a second independent proposition referring back 
by the medium of the word therefore to the preceding proposition as 
expressing something which stands to what it expresses in the relation 
of cause to effect. The relation in which the two propositions, in such 



(6) Give examples. (7) Repeat the substance of the illustration. 

(8) What form of expression can be substituted for that above ? Describe the substitu- 
tion, and illustrate by examples. 

(9) Describe another form in which such compound propositions are presented. (10) 
Write the example, and holding this, answer the question discussed ; namely, which pro- 
position shall we in such cases consider as the accessory ? 

(11) Repeat the substance of what is said in reference to tie accessory of effect. 



§ 133.] ACCESSORY OF INFERENCE. 419 

compound propositions as we have given above as examples, stand, may- 
be regarded as intermediate between the relation of principal and subor- 
dinate, and of co-ordinate propositions united in the manner which we 
shall consider presently. That their relation is very nearly the same as 
that of co-ordinate propositions, is rendered evident by the fact, that we 
can unite them by the copulative and without injury to their relation to 
one another or any change of the sense which they convey. Thus, 
This farm is carefully cultivated^ and therefore it is productive. These 
remarks apply with equal force to the accessory of inference^ which we 
are about to consider. 

(12) We have more formal methods of introducing an accessory of 
effect — such as, /or this cause^ or, for that cause, iecause of this, on this 
account. (13) We would treat propositions commencing in this way as 
independent, save that by these forms of expression they refer back to 
a cause involved in the preceding discourse. (14) Therefore, when 
employed in what we call the accessory of effect, may be regarded as 
an abbreviated method of expressing for this or that cause. There, 
as we have already had occasion to remark, is equivalent to thatm the 
dative case, and joined with /or (in the inverted order common in the 
earlier stages of our language) forms therefore=for that or this, and 
when it precedes the accessory of effect=/6'?' this or that cause, the 
word cause being imiMed. 

(15) Punctuation. — A comma is always inserted between the pro- 
positions in this kind of construction. 

Exercise. — Produce examples of the form of construction de- 
scribed. 

§ 133. Accessory of Inference. — (1) The conjunctive adverb 
therefore is also employed to connect the accessory of inference, 
which is a proposition expressing a conclusion or inference drawn 
from an argument contained in the preceding proposition, or, as 
often happens, in a larger portion of the preceding discourse. 

(2) Examples : This farm is productive, therefore it is carefully 
cultivated. Tbat is, for the reason that the farm is productive I con- 
clude, or infer that it is carefully cultivated. The trees in this place 
are large, therefore the soil must de good. That is, from the fact that 



(12) Mention more formal methods of introducing an accessory of effect. (13) How may 
propositions commencing in this way be treated? (14) Eepeat remarks on therefore. 
(15) Punctuation? 

§ 133. (1) Describe the accessory of inference, and tell the word which connects it. 

(2) Illustrate by examples. 



420 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 133. 

the trees are large, stated in the first proposition, I conclude that the 
soil must be good. 

(3) This accessory must be carefully distinguished from that which 
expresses a physical efi;ect. The meanings expressed by these two 
accessories, though apparently so like in form, are altogether dissimilar. 
It is by no means intended to assert above that the goodness of the 
soil is the effect of the largeness of the trees, or that the careful culti- 
vation is the effect of the productiveness of the farm. It may perhaps 
be regarded as a defect in our language that the same word theeefoee 
is employed for these two purposes so dissimilar, and, in many cases, so 
apparently inconsistent. We must guard against being misled by this 
double use of therefore. "We might distinguish these uses by naming 
tTierefore employed for the first purpose fheref ore causal^ that is, there- 
fore introducing an effect and referring back to its cause, and naming 
therefore employed for the second purpose, as it has been named by 
the logicians already, therefore illative^ that is, therefore introducing 
an inference or conclusion of the understanding from a preceding 
argument. (4) The learner will perhaps understand the matter better, 
if we tell him plainly that the difference of meaning arises from the 
different words im2Jlied with the determinative part of therefore in the 
two cases. These words we have already seen are cause and reason. 
In the first use therefore is equivalent to for tins or that cause, as we 
have shown above ; in the second it is equivalent to for this or that 

EEASOlir. 

(5) We have already taken occasion to say that the remarks in re- 
ference to the relation between the accessory of effect and the principal 
proposition, apply to the relation of the accessory of inference to the 
principal proposition. The accessory of inference, like the accessory 
of effect, is not properly an accessory in the sense which implies siib- 
ordination, or sudservience to the mere completion of a principal 
proposition. Here, too, we can introduce the copulative conjunction 
before the accessory — indicating co-ordination or independence to a 
certain extent. Thus, The trees in this place are large., AjSTd therefore 
the soil must te good. 

(6) This kind of connection of the inference with the argument is 
often more formally indicated by such expressions SiSfrom this I infer ^ 

(3) Eepeat the caution against confounding the accessory of effect and the accessory of 
inference. Illustrate the difference. (4) Give an explanation that will appear more clear 
to those not conversant with logical distinctions. 

(5) Eepeat substance of remark as to the true nature of this so-called accessory. 

(6) Mention more formal methods of indicating the connection of inference with argu- 
ment. 



§ 133.] ACCESSORY OF INFERENCE. 421 

or conclude that^ for this reason I infer that^ Tience I conclude that^ &o. 
Here we see that therefore^ like many other co7ijunctive words, serves 
the purpose of a distinct proposition to assert the relation between two 
other propositions. 

(7) Then and noio^ both originally adverbs of time^ are frequently 
employed between propositions with a slightly illati've or inferential 
force, sometimes with a merely continuative force. In otlier words, 
they are sometimes employed to introduce less formally — less empha- 
tically, a proposition which expresses an inference or conclusion, and 
sometimes one which is only a continuation of the same train of thought 
— a continuation of the same argnm^ent. (8) We illustrate by examples ; 
" We the?i that are strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak." 
This is obviously an inference drawn from the preceding reasoning, 
and we might substitute therefore for then without any other effect, 
save giving stronger indication of inference. " Tell me now what 
thou hast done." " ISFoid^ as soon as it was day, there was no small 
stir among the soldiers," &c. " jN'ow that which decayeth and 
waxeth old is ready to vanish away." In these examples now is 
slightly illative. Sometimes the tra.nslators of the Bible employ both 
then and now together ; as, " Now then, it is no more I that do it," &c. 
(9) So expressive of manner often precedes both then and now con- 
junctively employed. In the same way it sometimes, but perhaps more 
rarely, precedes because and since. So in such cases 'is to be treated as 
an ad'Gerl) of manner^in such manner^ referring to a manner already 
expressed — a manner common to the proposition or some part of the 
discourse which precedes and the proposition which follows. 

(10) The employment of both then and now for the purpose de- 
scribed above, has, no doubt, arisen from an insensible extension of their 
proper adverbial use. A transition has been (naturally enough) 
made from using then to indicate a definite, distinct time to indicate a 
definite, dii^tmai juncture of circumstances ; from using now to indicate 
a present time to indicate a present juncture of circumstances, de- 
scribed in the preceding discourse. (11) Then is a formation from the 
or that.^ an accusative most likely, and still means that with the word 
time implied==(2^ or in that time. Now the transition from in that 
time to in that case or in that juncture of circumMances^ is both natural 
and easy. The same has happened to when.^ perhaps (as we have 



(7) state the substance of what is said of the conjunctive use of then and now. (8) Illus- 
trate this use of these words by examples. (9) State the substance of what is said of the 
use of so in connection with then and now. 

(10) What explanation is given of the inferential use of then and noiv '^ (1 1) Eepeat 



422 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§133. 

already observed) originally like then an accusative of time^ the word 
time being in both cases implied. (12) We illustrate this by examples, 
in some of which we may find these words in the state of transition 
from the expression of time to the expression of a case or conjuncture 
of circumstances. " Then shall I not be ashamed, when I have respect 
unto all thy commandments." Then — when might here be taken in 
their original sense=(xi that time — in which time, and give some sort 
of approximation to the sense; but it is evident that they rather 
indicate the same case., the same conjuncture of circumstances., than the 
same time. " If our youngest brother be with us, then will we go 
down." " For now should I have lain still and been quiet, I should 
have slept : then had I been at rest with kings and counsellors of the 
earth." " He seeth wickedness also ; will he not then consider ?" In 
these examples, if we substitute the words in that case for then.^ we 
shall express the sense intended, (13) In the same manner we might 
illustrate the use of now='in this case by examples. "We shall content 
ourselves with one as a sample. " There is therefore now no con- 
demnation," &c.=There is therefore in this case — in tJie conjuncture 
described in the preceding discourse, no condemnation, &c. * 

(14) We shall presently notice that then is employed in the 
principal proposition of hypotheticals in the same way — as equivalent 
to in this case. 

(15) Punctuation. — A comma is inserted between the principal and 
accessory. 

Exercise. — Furnish examples of compound propositions containing 
Accessories of Inference. 



* It is worthy of remark that in translating the passage partially quoted 
above (Rom. viii. 1), Wiclif, the Rheims, and the authorized version, em- 
ploy now ; Tyndale, Cranmer, and the Geneva version, then ; all evidently 
intending to express the same sense. This shows that there is little difference 
between then and now in this use. It proves also that they have, when thus em- 
ployed, been diverted from their more common acceptation ; for, where time is 
distinctly implied, it is impossible to make such an interchange between these 
words, without a marked change of the sense. They refer to opposed j^oints 
of time. " Then, I was happy, but now I am miserable." 



what is said of the origin of the word then. (12) Illustrate the transition in the case of then 
and loheti from their original to this secondary use. Write out examples, 

(13) Illustrate the illative use of now by an example. 

(14) Eepeat the remark about then used in hypotheticals. 

(15) Punctuation? 



§ 134, 135.] ACCESSORY OF PURPOSE PREVENTIVE. 423 

§ 134. (1) The next kind of accessory which we shall consider 
is that which expresses the purpose of what is asserted in the prin- 
cipal proposition. (2) This we may call The Accessory of 
Purpose. (3) This accessory is generally introduced by that 
conjunctive. (4) Example : / have come that I may assist you=I 
have come to assist you, or, / have come to your assistance. 

(5) This accessory may perhaps fairly be regarded as a substantive 
accessory in the dative case. This appears plainly enough when, as in 
the example above, we can substitute a noun for the proposition. / 
have come to your assistance. Here to your assistance=a dative, since 
the preposition to expresses the dative relation. (6) This accessory is 
very often contracted into the corresponding injiniti've or verbal noun, 
and then becomes what we have already, in treating of the comple- 
ments in simple propositions, called the infinitive of purposed 

(7) That serves, as we have seen, to introduce several kinds of 
accessory propositions. We may easily ascertain whether the accessory 
is an accessory of purpose by trying to substitute in order tliat for 
simple fhat. If we can do so without injury to the sense, Ave have the 
accessory of purpose. 

(8) Punctuation. — A comma generally separates the principal and 
accessory propositions. 

Exercise. — Furnish examples of compound propositions containing 
an accessory of purpose. 

§ 135. There is another form of proposition which may be 
brought within the class of accessories of purj^ose. (1) The purpose 
in the form to which we refer is negative., or, perhaps, we should 
rather say, preventive. (2) This accessory is introduced and con- 
nected with the principal proposition by the conjunctive word lest., 



* Those acquainted with Anglo-Saxon will observe that all these forms of 
expression commence with prepositions which, in that language, take after 
them a dative. This justifies the assertion that this species of accessory may 
be considered as a substantive accessory in the dative relation. 



§ 134 (1) Describe the accessory next to be considered. (2) Name ?' (3) Conjuncti've 
word? (4) Illustrate by example. (5) How may this accessory be regarded? (6) Into 
what is it frequently contracted? 

(7) What is remarked of that, and how may we distinguish that thus employed ? 

(8) Punctuation? 

§ 135. (1) Describe another species of accessory of purpose. (2) Oonjunetive word ? 



424 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 136. 

whicli is nearly equivalent to that not. (3) We may call this, for 
distinction's sake, the accessory of purpose preventive. 

(4) Example: I make my msit shorty lest I may interfere icith 
your occupations ==- / maJce my msit shorty that / may not interfere^ 
or i]sr OEDEB that / may not interfere^ &c. (5) We sometimes 
employ the hypothetical form of the verb instead of the conditional iu 
this kind of accessories; thus, I malce my msit shorty lest /should in- 
terfere^ &c. The conditional form is proper, when we know that the 
party addressed has definite business on hand, which we do not wish to 
interrupt ; the hypothetical when we know nothing definite, but wish to 
intima:e our desire not to interfere with occupations which the party 
addressed may possiMy have on hand. (6) This form of accessory is 
very common in our language. Examples : " Love not sleep, lest thou 
come to poverty." '' Make no friendship with an angry man, and with 
a furious man thou shalt not go ; lest thou learn his ways," &c. " Give 
me neither poverty nor riches ; feed me with food convenient for me ; 
lest I be full, and deny thee, and say, Who is the Lord ? or lest I be 
poor, and steal, and take the name of my God in vain." 

(7) PuxcTUATiON. — Separate by a point. 

Exercise. — Furnish examples involving the accessory of purpose 
preventive. 

§ 136. Exceptive Accessory Propositiox. — (1) We may 
next mention what we shall call the exceptive accessory, which is 
generally introduced by the exceptive conjunction unless. (2) 
ExamjDle: I cannot succeed^ unless my friends assist me. 

(8) We supply an example from Hooker, " Seeing then no man can 
plead eloquently unless he be able first to speak ; it foUoweth, that 
ability of speech is in this case a thing most necessary." — Hooker, B. 
I. ch. 14. This affords a good example for practice in analysis. The 
whole compound proposition expresses a conclusion or inference in- 
troduced by the illative or continuative conjunctive word then^ which 
neither claims precedence, as would be natural, nor is united to its own 
proposition, "it followeth," which is the leading one of the whole 



(3) Kame? (4) Example? (5) What form of the verb is sometimes employed instead of 
the conditional f When is the one form proper, and when the other ? (6) What is said of 
the frequency with which this kind of accessory recurs in language ? Give more examples. 
(7) Punctuation ? 

§ 136. (1) What accessory is next considered, and what is the conjunctive word? (2) 
Example ? (3) Bring a written copy of the example from Hooker, and, with this before the 
eyes, repeat the analysis given above. 



§ 137.] CONDITIONAL AND HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. 425 

passage. If therefore had been used, it would have claimed the first 
place, but the slightly illative then is often thus thrust out of its 
regular place into a secondary position. Seeing introduces " No man 
can plead eloquently;" unless introduces the proposition belore which 
it stands, " he be able," &c. And the last proposition, "That ability 
of speech is in this case," &c. is a substantive accessory and the real 
subject of the leading proposition, the verb '■'' foUoiceth " taking it as a 
rei^resentatwe and temporary subject till the real one is developed. 

(4) The accessory of this kind often precedes the 'principal. 
" Unless the Loed had been my help, my soul had almost dwelt in 
silence." 

(5) Except^ and except that^ and sometimes save are used for the 
same purpose. (6) These are all imperatives, and the proposition 
following them is really a substantive accessory used as objective com- 
plement to these imperatives. Home Tooke maintains that unless is 
also an imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb onlesan^ which means to 
unlease or unloose. 

(7) Punctuation. — Separate by a comma. 

ExEEGiSE. — Furnish compound propositions involving examples of 
the exceptive accessory. 

§ 137. — (1) Those accessories which follow may perhaps be re- 
garded as a fourth class having no analogy with the modifications 
of simple propositions. 

Conditional and Hypothetical Propositions. — (2) We 
come now to consider a very peculiar and important class of 
compound propositions — we mean i7nporta7it in a grammatical point 
of viev/ — namely, conditio7ial propositions.^ 

(3) These and hypothetical propositions (which it will be con- 
venient to consider in connection with them) differ from other forms 



* The learner will please study carefully, in connection with what 
we say upon conditional and hypothetical proiDositions, the remarks on the 
use of the auxiliaries will, shall, may, can, and their past forms would, 
should, <fec., and on the past tense employed hypothetically. {See § 63.) 

(4) Eepeat remark, and give example. 

(5) Enumerate other words used to introduce this kind of accessory. (6) Eepeat what 
is said in reference to these words. ' , 

(T) Punctuation ? 

§ 13T. (1) What is said in reference to the accessories which follow ? 
(2) What is said of the class next considered, and what is the name given to them? 
(3) In what do conditional and hypothetical propositions differ from other forms of com- 



426 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 137. 

of compoimd propositions in this respect, that they convey no 
absolute assertion. (4) In the conditional proposition the assertion 
depends upon the condition (hence the name conditional) expressed 
in the accessory. If this condition is granted the assertion holds, 
but if not it is void, (o) In the hypothetical proposition the 
assertion is based upon a mere hypothesis (hence the name 
hypothetical), upon a supjwsed case, which (it is generally implied 
by the nature of the exjDression) has no real existence, but on the 
supposition that this case had existed in the past, the assertion (now 
admitted void) "would have been valid. Hence the past tense is 
employed, as we shall see, both in the principal and in the 
accessory of the hypothetical compound proposition. [See § 63.) 

(6) The word employed both in the conditional and in the hypo- 
thetical proposition to connect the accessory is generally if. This 
word is commonly supposed to be the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon 
verb gifan, to give. (7) The form gif for if is found in older writers, 
and in the Scottish dialect of the last century. 

" Gif I could fancy aught's sae sweet or fair." 

" Gif I cou'd find blae-berries ripe for thee.-' — Ramsay. 

(8) In the condAtional the verb of the principal proposition is 
either of the future form or of the conditional form made with the 
help of the auxiliaries can and may. (9) When xh^ future form is 
employed, the futurity of the event expressed in the principal 
proposition is asserted, subject to the condition or contingency 
expressed in the accessory. When the conditional form with can 
or may is employed, only the power or liberty to do the action — in 
other words, only the possibility of the event — expressed in the 
principal proposition is asserted, stibject, as before, to the condition 
or contingency expressed in the accessory. 

(10) Examples: "/ sliall go^ if circumstances compel me. He will 

pound propositions ? (4) On vrhat does the assertion in conditionals depend ? (5) Describe 
the hypothetical proposition. 

(6) What TTord is emploved to connect conditional and hypothetical accessories ? (7; 
Examples of g^ffor if. 

(S) What is said of the form of the verb in the lyrincipal of conditionals ? (9) "What is 
asserted when the future tense is employed in the principal proposition ? What when the 
conditional with cari or may is employed ? (10) Illustrate by e xa mples. (11) What is said 
about the arrangement ? 



§ 137.] CONDITIONAL AND HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. 427 

go^ IF you are willing to go with Mm. I can go^ if my friends permit 
me. I may go^ if tlie weatlier shall prove favorable. (11) Here we 
have arranged the principal propositions first ; but the accessory in all 
these examples may be arranged first without any impropriety as re- 
gards order, or any change of sense. In all cases we are at liberty in 
using conditional propositions to place that first to which we wish to 
secure the greatest emphasis, or to accommodate the arrangement to 
our notions of harmony. Tlie same remark applies equally to hypo- 
thetical propositions. 

(12) There are other words besides {^sometimes employed to con- 
nect conditional accessories. Such are, provided or providing that., 
suppose that or supposing that^ in case that^ put case that^ set case that., 
&c. Examples of all these may be found in our older writers, but they 
are now seldom used, with the QxcQ^iion of provided or providing that., 
and in case that. (13) We give examples of the propositions connected 
\)j provided that., providing that., and in case that. I loill remaim, peo- 
YiDED THAT you remain with me. (14) Here we may regard the ac- 
cessory proposition as a substantive accessory preceded, as usual, by 
that determinative, and as forming with the participle, 2^^ovided^ the 
construction called a substantive with a particij^le in the case absolute. 
(See § 143 : 13, et seq.) (15) Providing that / have your assistance., 
I will attempt the business. Here / have your assistance may also be 
regarded as a substantive accessory preceded by that., and forming the 
objective modification of the participle providing ; the whole being a 
participial construction used instead of the compound accessory pro- 
position. If you., or somebody provide., or, if it be provided tha.t I have 
your assistance. In case — or, in case that — you cannot go^ I id ill not 
go., = If you cannot go., I will not go. 

(16) An imp)erative proposition is sometimes employed with the 
same force as a conditional accessory. Examples : Be good., and you 
shall be happy. Be industrious., frugal., and honest., and you cannot 
fail of success. These are manifestly equivalent to, If you are good., 
you shall be happy. If you loill be industrious., frugal., and honest., you 
cannot fail of success. In some cases, by using the imperative proposi- 
tion, we render the expression more animated. 



(12) Mention other words employed to connect conditionals ; and repeat the remark in 
reference to then- use. (13) Give examples of the use of such of these connecting Avords as 
occur in modern writers. (14) How may such accessories he regarded? (15) Transcribe 
the examiile, '■'■providing that^"" «&c., and explain it, with the copy in hand. 

(16) Kepeat the remark about the use of imperative propositions ; and illustrate by ex- 
amples. 



428 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 137. 

(17) It will be observed that in snob constructions the imperative 
proposition and the principal proposition are simply united as co-ordi- 
nate propositions by the copulative and. The real relation of the pro- 
positions here, as in many other cases, is left to be discovered from 
the matter.^ rather than the form of the expression. (See § 146.) 

ExEECiSE, — Furnish examples of conditional propositions. 

We next give examples oi hypothetical propositions. (18) These dif- 
fer in form from conditional propositions only in one circumstance, that 
either the hypothetical or a past tense is employed in them. Indeed, 
both as to form and purpose.^ the hypothetical may be regarded as a 
subdivision of conditional propositions ; namely, that class of condi- 
tionals in which the condition is not contingent or doubtful.^ but 
imagined to exist that we may have the opportunity of asserting hypo- 
thetically what we would assert a'bsolutely^ on the supposition that 
this condition really existed. (19) Hypothetical propositions are gene- 
rally, like conditional propositions, constructed with if preceding and 
introducing the hypothetical accessory. (20) Examples : I would go., if 
I could ; implying that I cannot now go, but that it is supposable that I 
had the power at a past time, and if so, that I had the will to go. He 
could write more frequently if he had the inclination to icrite ; imply- 
ing that he has not the inclination, but that it is supposable that he 
possessed it. If I had the dooh I would give it to your friend. More 
examples may be found in the remarks on the Conditional and Hypo- 
thetical Forms of the verb. (See § 63.) 

(21) Hypothetical accessories can be introduced by means of the 
other words or phrases which introduce conditional accessories. Thus, 
/ would certainly go., provided that or in case that, &c., I could 
leave my business. 

(22) In hypothetical accessories, the conjunctive word is often 
omitted, especially when in the arrangement the accessory takes prece- 
dence of the principal proposition. Thus, Had I the hooTc, I would 
give it to you., = If I had the booTc^ I would give it to you. (See § 
63.) 

(23) In the hypothetical accessory the conjunctive past tense of the 
verb to be is employed, and not, as in other verbs, the indicative 

(17) Repeat the observation about these constructions with imperatives. 

(18) Explain the difference between hypothetical and conditional propositions. (19) 
What connective word is chiefly employed in hypotheticals ? (20) Illustrate by examples. 

(21) What is said of introducing hypotheticals by other words and phrases ? Examples ? 

(22) Repeat what is said of the Oinission of the covjunctive word. Give example. 

(23) What form of the vei-b to 5e is employed in hjrpotheticals? Example. (24) When 
i/i& suppressed, what arrangement is preferable ? 



§ 137.] CONDITIONAL AND HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. 429 

past. Example : / would do thoA for you^ if I were able^ or, were I 
able. (24) When we suppress ij\ it is best to place the accessory first. 
Were I able.^ I would do thai for you. 

(25) Conditional and liypothetical propositions are used in the 
Interrogative form ; as, Will he not assist me, if he can ? Would I not 
assist you, if / could f 

(26) Then illative (indicating a consequeiice or inference)., is some- 
times employed to introduce the principal proposition in conditionals 
and hypothteicals. In this case the principal proposition comes after the 
accessory. 'Exam])les: If lean hel2y you., ruEi^ J will. If I could help 
you., THEN I would. "If I knew, then would not I tell?" Then used 
in this manner appears rather stiff, and is, we believe, seldom intro- 
duced in tlie modern written language. 

(27; It has been noticed already, in the remarks on the hypotheti- 
cal form of the verbs, that the negative hypothetical accessory, exactly 
the reverse of all other negative propositions, implies that the sup- 
posed condition actually exists. This might have been anticipated 
from the fact already known, that the accessory of the affirmative 
form implies the present non-existence of what it ex[)resses. The nega- 
tive being the counterpart in form of the affirmative accessory, should 
also be its counterpart in sense. Examples : If tliat man could not 
fay his debts.^ he would not be so blame-wortliy . This implies that the 
man is actually able to pay his debts, and therefore worthy of greater 
blame. If he were not a worthy man., we would not defend him so 
zealously. This implies that we take him for a worthy man, 

(28) We must observe here that the hypothetical form of com- 
pound proposition is sometimes used, when we do not intend to express 
Qa foregone conclusion ; in other words, when it is not implied that the 
condition expressed in the accessory no longer exists. Such cases may, 
perhaps, be regarded as an extension of the use of this form to express 
an assertion in a softened manner under the cloak of a hypothesis. 
Example : If your friend would come to me to-morrow., I could., or might., 
or wouM explain to him the difficulty which perplexes him. This is a 
promise less absolute than when I say. If your friend will co^ne., I can, 
or MAY, or WILL, &c. In the latter case my ability, power, will to ex- 
plain the difficulty is absolutely asserted, but in the former case it is 

(25) Eepeat the remark about the interrogative form. Give examples. 

(26) What is said of the use of then illative in conditionals and hypotheticals ? Illustrate 
by examples. 

(27) Eepeat in substance what is said of the negative hypothetical proposition ; and illus- 
trate the statement by examples. 

(28) Eepeat the substance of the observation, and illustrate by examples. - 



430 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§^38. 

only asserted as dependent, at least, on your friend's will to come, 
and perhaps on other casualties. 

(29) PuiSrcTUATiox. — In conditionals and hypotheticals a comma 
separates the principal and accessory. 

ExEECiSE.— -Furnish examples of hypothetical propositions. 

§ 138. (1) In the conditional and hypothetical proposition the 
accessory might be represented as expressing a concession asked by 
the speaker, on which concession the validity of the main assertion 
depends. (2) There is another kind of compound proposition, in 
which the accessory also expresses a concession, but a concession 
granted or admitted by the speaker, and, notwithstanding which, 
the assertion is made, and made absolutely, not conditionally. (3) 
This kind of accessory has been called by some of the Germans the 
concessive accessory ; and this name we adopt for want of a better, 
though not perfectly satisfied of its appropriateness.'^ 

(4) In this class of propositions, the accessory is most generally 
introduced in the English of the present day by the words though 
and although, sometimes in ancient writers and in imitations of the 
antiquated style by albeit, (o) The force of the conjunctive though 
is often supported by the introduction of the adverb yet in the 
principal proposition; perhaps sometimes by still. Yet is only 
introduced when the principal prop)Osition follows the accessory. 
The yet thus introduced may be regarded as equivalent to after all, 
notwithstanding the objection. 

(6) TTe present examples both ^dth and without yet. " Though 
thou detain me, I wiU not eat of thy bread." " Though hand join in 



* "We are not sure that this name sufficiently distinguishes this accessory 
from the conditional accessory. ISTor do we think that it exactly expresses 
the purpose of the accessory. The name aj^plies, perhaps, better to the 
compound proposition taken as a whole, which expresses an assei'tion, and, 
connected with it, a concession of something apparently adverse to it, but 
held not to invalidate it. 



(29) Punctuation? 

§ 138. (1) Remark about the conditional and hypothetical proposition. (2) Describo 
another kind of compound proposition. (3) What has the accessory in this kind of proposi- 
tion been called ? 

(4) What words are most generally employed to introduce the accessory in these com- 
poimd propositions ? (5) What is said of the use of yet in concessive propositions ? (6) 
Adduce examples for llhTstration. (7) Wliat is said of the verbs in these examples? 



§ 138.] CONCESSIVE PROPOSITIONS. 431 

hand, the wicked shall not be unpunished." " Though he slay me, yet 
will I trust in him." " Though the Lord be high, yet hath he respect 
unto the lowly." That is to say, admitting — conceding — that the 
Lord is high, and that this admitted fact might appear an objection to 
his acting in the manner to be asserted, stilly setting this aside^ this 
notwithstanding, it is asserted, that " ITe hath respect unto the lowly. ''"' 
It may here be observed that our translators generally employ the 
conjunctive form of the verb To Be after though, even when a matter 
of fact, as in the last example, is expressed by the proposition. (7) 
The verbs in the other examples, and in that which we are about to 
give, may be regarded as contracted future conditional, or hypotheti- 
cal forms. (See § 55, p. 111.) 

" Yet, though destruction sweep those lovely plains, 
Else, fellow-men ! your country yet remains." 

The first yet is here to suit the versification, separated from its 
proposition. Its proper place is before the verb " rise," 

(8) We give examples of Although, the first two as found in 
Eichardson's Dictionary. 

" All though a man be wise hym selve. 
Yet is the wisdom more of twelve." — Gower. 

" In which although good fortune me befall, 
Yet shall it not by none be testifyde." — Spencer. 
" Although all should be offended, yet will not I." 

(9) We give the following as examples of the now antiquated 
albeit : 

" Who are you, tell me for more certainty. 

Albeit I'll swear that I do know your tongue." 
" One whose subdued eyes, 

Albeit unused to the melting mood, 

Drop tears," &c. — Shak. 
" Albeit betwixt them roared the ocean grim. 

Yet so the sage had hight to play his part." — Scott. 

This example from Scott is an imitation of the antiquated style. 
(10) It will be seen from these examples that although and albeit are 
employed exactly like though, and for the same purpose. The com- 
position of these two words is oJ)vious. Ail-though ; All-de-it. 



(8) Give examples with although for conjunction. 

(9) Examples of albeit? (10) Eepeat remark about although and albeit. 



432 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 138. 

(11) The words xotwithstaxddsg- and keyeetheless are used in a 
principal proposition to set aside an objection, which might be draAvn 
from the preceding part of a discourse. They may be regarded as 
equivalent to tlwugh this is so, yet. (12) The use of noticithstanding 
may be thus explained : The preceding proposition, or a portion of the 
preceding discourse is taken with the participle icitlistanding and the 
negative, in the manner of the case absolute. = This (what precedes) 
not standing against, the assertion which follows holds true. (13) 
Nevertheless, when resolved into the words which constitute it, ex- 
plains itself. Nemr the less on account of what precedes^ the assertion 
still holds true. (14) Examples: " ISTotwithstanding I have a few 
things against thee." That is the character given in the context, not 
icitlistanding — not opposing — not forming a xalid though apparent ob- 
jection. (15) The word notwithstanding refers thus to an objection 
arising from the concessions in the preceding discourse, which objec- 
tion it serves to set aside.* 

Examples of the use of nevertheless. (16) He acted imprudently 
on that occasion ; xeteetbdeless he is not a fool = necer the less, or 
not the less (anciently natheless) on this OAicount, he is not a fool. 
" Wisdom is better than strength ; nevertheless the poor man's wisdom 
is despised." 

* The determinatives this or that (referring to the apparent objection 
contained in the preceding discourse), may be regarded as impUed after not- 
withstanding. That is often in fact expressed after it ; and sometimes even 
the objection in the preceding passage is summed up, in a word or phrase, 
and placed alongside the participle notwithstanding. We quote the two 
following apposite examples from Dr. Webster's Dictionary, together with a 
part of his illustration. " 'It is a rainy day, but notwithstanding that, the 
troops must be reviewed ;' that is, the rainy day not opposing or prevent- 
ing. That, in this case, is a substitute for the whole first clause of the sen- 
tence. It is to that clause what a relative is to an antecedent noun, and 
which may be used ia the place of it ; notwithstanding which, that is, the 
rainy day. 

" 'Christ enjoined on his followers not to publish the cures he wrought; 
but nottoithstanding his injitnctions, they proclaimed them.' Here, notwith- 
standing his injunctions, is the case independent or absolute ; the injimctions 
of Christ not opposing or preventing. This word answers precisely to the 
Latin non obstante," <fce. 



(11) Eepeat what is said of noticitIistanc7i7ig and nevertheless. (12) Explain the use of 
notwithstanding. (13) Eepeat the remark about nevertheless. (14) Illustrate by exam- 
ples. (15) To what does the word notwithstanding refer ? 

(16) Illustrate the use oi nevertheless by examples. 



§ 138.] CONCESSIVE WITH ALTERNATIVE ACCESSORY. 433 

(17) The word Tiowbeit is employed in older writers for much the 
same purjDose. We have an example in the book of Euth. " I am 
thy near kinsman ; Tiowleit there is a kinsman nearer than I." This 
is nearly equivalent to notwithstanding^ or nevertheless " there is a 
kinsman nearer than I." 

(18) Still is also sometimes used for a similar purpose. Example : 
" Stilly as you rise, the state, exalted too, 

Finds no distemper while 'tis changed by you." — WaUer. 
Exercise. — Furnish examples of concessive propositions. 

(19) There is a kind of concessive proposition, in which an objec- 
tion proposed in the form of an alternative is set aside. The accesso- 
ry in this kind of proposition is introduced by the word whether => 
which of two, and the alternative by or. (20) "We give examples : 
Whether you go, or do not go, I shall certainly go. Or, with the 
principal proposition first in order, / shall certainly go, whether you 
go or do not go ; (more commonly expressed in an abbreviated form, 
Whether you go, or not, I shall certainly go.) Here it is implied, that 
there is something adverse, something opposed to my going either in 
your goiny, or not going (most generally in the last alternative, 
but this would be manifest in an actual conversation froin the connec- 
tion of the discourse), and this something is set aside by this form of 
expression as unavailing in reference to what is asserted in the main 
proposition. Your going or not going cannot avail to prevent my 
going. In other words, after conceding the alternative that you go, 
or do not go, the assertion stands, that I go. " Every man who had 
to live by his wit wrote plays, whether he had any internal vocation 
to write plays or not." 

(21) This form of compound proposition is equivalent to a con- 
ditional proposition with an alternative accessory ; If you go, or if 
you do not go, still I shall go. Or (what is the same thing) it is equi- 
valent to two conditional propositions having the same main assertion, 
I shall go, if you go ; and I shall go, if you do not go. (22) It may 
admit a doubt whether this form should be classed under the concessive 
or the conditional. As it contains an absolute assertion, notwithstand- 
ing the conceded objection, we have classed it with concessive propo- 



(17) What is said of the employment of howbeit f Illustrate by examples. 

(18) Give an example of still employed for a similar purpose. 

(19) Describe another species of concessive proposition ; and tell the word by which it is 
introduced. (20) Illustrate by examples. 

(21) To what is this kind of compound proposition equivalent? (22) What doubt is 
suggested about classifying it ? 



434 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§138. 

sitions. (23) We venture to call it The Concessive ComjpGund Propo- 
sition tcith Alternative Accessory. 

(24) PuxcTUATiox OF CoxcESSFTES. — A coiiima between the princi- 
pal and the accessory. 

Exercises. — Furnish examples of this form of compound proposi- 
tion. 

(25) There is still another form of concessive proposition, in which 
the objection conceded and set aside is of an indefinite, nnlimited, all 
comprehensive description, (26) TVe may call this The Concessive with 
Indefinite Accessory. (27) These concessit es h-ox q iov their conjunctive 
words the compound conjunctive pronoun ichoever serving as the sub- 
ject of the accessory, or the conjunctive whatever., serving as subject.^ 
or as objective modification of the predicate, or the adverb however., 
performing its adverbial function, besides that of conjunctive word.* 
(28) Examples: Whoever mo.y oppose that man., he icill succeed., or 
that man icill succeed., whoever may oppose Mm = Though a?iy or all 
men should oppose Mm, that man icill succeed. "Whatever obstacles 
lie in Ms way^ he readAly surmounts = Though obstacles of any or all 
descriptions lie in his way., or though he meets any or all descriptions of 
obstacles., he readily surmounts them. However he is baffled., he always 
persists in ichat he undertalces^ Though he is boMed in any. or all 
ways., he always persists, &;c. (29) Puxctuatiox the same as in the last 
case. 



* It is to be noticed that however is often used in such a manner as to 
represent itself alone a sort of concessive proposition. It is then equivalent 
to hoicever this raay he, referring to the preceding discourse for the matter 
conceded. We give an example, and, in order to render it satisfactory, we 
are obhged to quote a portion of the preceding sentence. ''I served three 
campaigns with him in Flanders, and remember him ; but 'tis most likely, 
as I had not the honor of any acquaintance with him, that he knows nothing 
of me. Tou will tell him, however, that the person his good nature has laid 
under obligations to him, is one Le Fevi'e," (fcc. "You will tell him, how- 
ever" this may he, (that is, conceding the likelihood that he knows nothing 
of me, or, in other words, setting aside the objection that he may know no- 
thmg of me), " that the person," <fcc. {See § 121 : 20-24.) 

(23) What name is given to it ? 

(24) Punctuation? 

(25) Describe another form of concessive propositions. (26) By what name may we call 
this form ? (27) By what conjunctive words is the accessory in these introduced ? (28) 
Illustrate by examples. 

(29) Punctuation? 



§ 139.] COMPOUND WITH ACCESSORY OF REFERENCE. 435 

Exercise. — Furnish examples of this kind of concessive proposi- 
tion. 

§ 139. (1) There is a form of accessory, which we may call The 
Accessory of Reference, commencing with the conjunctive luhat^re- 
ceded by the words as to, or as for, to indicate its connection and 
show its relation to the principal proposition. 

(2) Examples : As to what ^De have deen talking of, my opinion is 
already fixed. As for what that man says, I have no confidence in 
it. More tersely, I have no confidence in what that man says. (8) In 
these examples as is equivalent to the words in reference, and is mani- 
festly an adverMal modification of the principal proposition. (4) "We 
shall see the nature of the construction more clearly by substituting 
for what the equivalent words that which. (5) In reference to that 
WHICH you say, my opinion is fixed, or my opinion is fixed in reference 
to that which you say. What you say, may be regarded as a siibstan- 
tive accessory with to forming a noun and preposition modification of 
the adverb as, or what is imf)lied in it, namely, the conception ex- 
pressed by the word reference. (6) As, we may here observe, is some- 
times modified in the same manner by a noun as well as by substan- 
tive accessories ; thus, As to the question in hand, my opinion is 



(7) Though this form of construction admits, as we have seen, of 
being reduced by analysis under the class of substantive, or ultimately 
of adjective accessories, still it is convenient to treat it as a separate 
form, if it were only for the purpose of explaining the method of ef- 
fecting this analysis. 

(8) Punctuation. — Comma between the principal and accessory. 

We may have omitted some forms of accessory propositions ; and several 
compound constructions may possibly be found, of which no description is 
given in the preceding observations. But after studying carefully what we 
have set forth in the above pages, the learner will, we hope, be able himself 
to devise means of analyzing any ordinary construction of this kind, which 
we may have overlooked. 

Those who are best qualified to form an opinion of the subject now 

§ 139. (1) Describe the accessory of reference. (2) Illustrate the use of this by exam- 
ples. (3) Repeat the remark in reference to the word as in these examples. (4) By what 
substitution shall we be enabled to see the nature of the construction more clearly? (5) 
Illustrate by example. (6) Repeat the remark about the manner in which as may be 
modified. 

(7) Repeat remark about the grammatical treatment of this construction. 

(8) Punctuation ? 



436 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 140. 

treated, and who know liow little assistance we have been able to draw 
from the works of our predecessors, will be most ready to excuse any omis- 
sion which may be discovered. We hope that nothing important to a general 
knowledge of the structure of our language has been altogether overlooked. 

§ 140. Contracted Accessories. General Remarks. — One 
subject still remains to be treated in order to complete our account 
of the construction of compound propositions ; (1) namely, certain 
forms of expression, which, though devoid of the grand character- 
istic of propositions, since they have in them no assertive word, yet 
perform functions equivalent to those of accessories. (2) These we 
may call contracted accessory projjositions. (3) We do not include in 
this class those propositions in which some important part, though 
suppressed, is plainly implied. (4) Such cases come under the 
head of Ellipsis, and the first thing to be done, as we have already 
said, in attempting to analyze such elliptical propositions, is to 
supply the suppressed part, or parts, and then proceed as in treating 
complete propositions, (o) But what we here intend to treat under 
the name of contracted or transformed accessories, differ from all 
propositions in having the word which serves as predicate in the 
substantive or adjective, not in the assertive form. 

(6) These forms of expression are constructed by the help of the 
verbal nouns and the verbal adjectives. (7) Some of them serve 
the purposes of substantive, some of adjective, and some of adverbial 
accessories. (8) Consequently we might treat them in the same 
order, in which we have treated the accessories ; but it will be more 
conducive both to brevity and to perspicuity to consider together 
the chief contracted accessories formed by the help of each of the 
verbal nouns and the verbal adjectives or participles. 

Note. — It ia not our intention here to introduce all the modifying forms 
of exj^ression which might legitimately be considered contracted accessory 
propositions. A large proportion of those which we have treated as com- 
plements of the subjects and predicates of simple propositions may, as we 

§ 140. (1) Describe certain forms of expression yet to be h-eated under the head of com- 
pound propositions. (2) How may we name these forms ? (3) What do we exclude from 
this class of forms ? (4) How are these excluded forms of expression to be treated ? (5) In 
what do contracted accessories differ from propositions ? 

(6) By the help of what words are these contracted accessories formed ? (7) What pur- 
poses do contracted accessories serve ? (8) What is said of the order in which they might 
be treated; and the order in which we actually treat them ? 



§ 140.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS. 437 

have had frequent occasion to hint, be regarded as abbreviations of what 
was perhaps first expressed by an accessory proposition, and of what can 
still be expressed in the same' manner. Perhaps all the modifications of 
nouns and adjectives, and many of the modifications of verbs are abbrevia- 
tions of what can be (though less conveniently) expressed by 'predication, 
and what was once so expressed. Even the descriptive adjective modifica- 
tion may perhaps be regarded as originally a contracted accessory, or an ab- 
breviated way of expressing a modifying predication. We have already 
said that we suspect that the modification by a proposition is of older date 
than that by a descriptive adjective, and that every descriptive adjective 
modification may be regarded as implying a suppressed predication. {8ee 
§ 88, note p. 266.) We think, for example, that The river which is swift is 
a more simple, less artificial, and likely more primitive form of expression 
than The sioift river, and that this last form of expression is a refinement of 
language. 

Some grammarians, on the contrary, seem to regard the accessory as an 
expansion of the participial and verhal-noun forms, which we call contracted 
accessories ; and this, because these latter forms are found to abound most in 
the earliest stages of the languages with which we are best acquainted. The 
persons to whom we allude conceive that as refinement advances these forms 
are expanded into accessory propositions. We do not think that there is 
any sufiicient reason alleged to support this opinion. We admit that in the 
progress of modern languages a very general tendency has been displayed 
to abandon all complicated constructions, such as the case absolute, <fec., as 
well as case terminations and tense terminations. But this does not prove 
that these latter are not more artificial forms of expression than those which 
have superseded them, nor that they are not the fruit of long cultivation 
and of a progressive development of language. Some of the modes of ex- 
pression used in common by the Greeks and Romans, and our own remote 
I^orthern ancestors, may have been more refined, more artificial than ours, 
though our less remote ancestors may have abandoned them. This admis- 
sion is not inconsistent even with the opinion that our modern languages 
have been improved by laying aside altogether, or only sparingly employ- 
ing, refinements which were the fruit of long and slow development. But 
however this may be, we believe that the disuse of the ingenious contrivances 
of our earlier ancestors, is attributable to the advent of times more barba- 
rous than those in which these contrivances originated, and to the confusion 
arising from the mingling of dialects — ISTorman with Anglo-Saxon — rather 
than to any design entertained of improving and simplifying language. The 
present English was formed and thp chief of the innovations to which we 
have alluded introduced in an age, perhaps, much ruder and less learned 
than that of Alfred, when the Anglo-Saxon reached its full development and 
is found in greatest purity. 



438 structure of language. [§141. 

§ 141. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of the 
Verbal Nouns in ing. — (1) Contracted accessory propositions are 
sometimes formed with the verbal nouns in ing^ either alone, or 
accompanied by verbal adjectives (partirqyles) forming what are 
usually (but' improperly) considered compound participles sub- 
stantively employed., {a) (2) Contracted accessories of this kind are 
employed instead of substantive accessory propositions, serving as 
subject noun, or as objective modification, or as noun and preposition, 
or adverbial modification to the verb of the principal proposition. 

Remaek. — (3) Every verbal noun which has a subject expressed or 
plainly implied in the construction — that is, what would be the subject 
noun, when the assertive form of expression is used — may be considered 
as a contracted accessory. This remark may be extended to the other 
verbals ; viz. : the infinitives and participles. 

(4) We subjoin a few examples of this class of contracted ac- 
cessories. " Their neglecting this was ruinous" ^Th at they neglected 
this was ruinous. In this last the learner will recognise a substantive 
accessory employed as subject of the verb loas. The word their 
expresses or includes what becomes the subject of the complete ac- 
cessory. They will call before leaving the city=Th.Qj will call before 
they leave the city. Here the subject of the action is plainly implied, 
since it is manifestly their leaving the city which is indicated. The 
accessory here is adverbial, expressing time, or equivalent to a noun and 
preposition modification. The word before performs the function both 
of preposition and conjunction. " Your having been so humble as to 
take notice of the epistles of other animals, emboldens me," &c.=That 
you have been so humble, &c. emboldens me. (Substantive ace. 
subject of the principal verb.) " His beiiig smitten with the love of 
Orestilla was the cause," &c. (The same analysis applies to this 
example.) " He recollected his being undressed'''' = He recollected 
that he toas undressed. (Objective accessory proposition.) " After 
turning from the main road — we came in sight of the cottage " = 
After we turned from the main road, &c. (Adverbial accessory of 
time, == noun and preposition modification.) Since writing that let- 

% 141. (1) Describe the class of contracted accessories first considered. (2) Mention the 
Tarious purposes for which this class of contracted accessories is employed. 

(3) Repeat the substance of the remark. To Avhat may the remark be extended? 

(4) Illustrate by examples. The best mode is, perhaps, for the learner to provide a writ- 
ten copy of the examples, make liimself master of the explanations, and repeat them with 
the help of his copy. 



§ 141.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. VERBAL NOUNS IN ING. 439 

ter^ he has changed his mind = Since he wrote that letter, he has 
changed his mind, (Analysis the same as of the last example.) 

(5) The verbal in ing is very often accompanied by a preposition. 
"When it follows those prepositions which are used before accessories, 
such as the words 'before^ after ^ since, it is always very easy to exchange 
the contracted form of accessory for the complete accessory, as may be 
seen in the examples above in which these words are employed before 
the verbal. But when the verdal noun is preceded by prepositions 
which are not used to connect accessories, it is not always easy, per- 
haps not always possible, to make this kind of exchange. Sometimes 
it can be readily done. For example : That man told me the news in 
RIDING out of town == That man told me the news as we were riding 
out of town. It is not, however, absolutely necessary in analysis to 
change these abbreviated forms into complete accessories. They may 
be regarded as a distinct method of expressing what can in many cases 
be more fully expressed by accessories, and what in some cases cannot 
now be so conveniently, if at all, expressed in this way ; and they 
may always be treated simply as nouns (but nouns susceptible of pe- 
culiar modifications in common with verbs), used as the subjects of 
propositions, or performing some other function of nouns. "We do not, 
therefore, prescribe any new mode of analysis for these forms of ex- 
pression. We have brought the consideration of them before the 
reader, because it is often useful in writing to be able readily to sub- 
stitute an accessory for these forms when the employment of them 
would involve, as it sometimes does, some awkwardness or ambiguity. (5) 

(6) PuNCTiJATioN. — ^The same as in simple propositions. 

WoTE (a). — The ultimate analysis of these verbal nouns in ing, accompa- 
nied by participles, is exactly similar to that of the compound tenses of their 
kindred verbs. In the case of the verbal bemg, as in the passive tenses, the 
accompanying participle is really an adjective complementary. In the exam- 
ple, " His being smitten," (fee, the word smitten is really an adjective comple- 
mentary ; of which form of modification the verbal being, like its kindred 
verb, is susceptible. The same remark applies to all those combinations 
called passive participles, as well as to all the compound passive tenses, ex- 
cept those into which the verb have enters as a component part. The three 
kinds of words, verbs, verbal nouns, and verbal adjectives, as we have already 
said, take modifications in common. This arises from their common nature 
as words expressing predicates, and not merely in the case of the verbal 
nouns and adjectives, from their connection with verbs. The susceptibility 

(5) Repeat the substance of the remarks about ver'bal nouns used after certain preposi- 
tions, and the mode of treating this class of verbals. 

(6) Punctuation ? 



440 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 141. 

of (what we mav call) verbal complements has no connection with the as- 
sertive function. It is the matter of the expression, not the form, derivation, 
or grammatical functions of verbal words (whether verbs, nouns, or partici- 
ples), which renders them susceptible of certain modifications in common. 

The explanation, which we have given of the use of have, with perfect 
participles in forming compound tenses, applies to the verbal noun having 
modified by participles, and also to the compound participles formed by the 
help of this word. There is no difficulty in resorting in every case, if we 
please, to the ultimate analysis of the verbal nouns and adjectives formed 
with the word being. The participle attached to them may always be con- 
sidered as an adjective complementary of the verbal. But it is more difficult 
to resort to the ultimate analysis of verbal nouns and adjectives formed with 
the word having, especially when the participle which follows is of a neuter 
signification. The difficulty, as we have already said, seems to have been 
caused by an insensible extension of a usage appropriate only to active pre- 
dicates to neuter predicates. Owing to this difficulty, it will be convenient 
to treat verbals, whether nouns or adjectives, accompanied by participles as 
compound verbals, in the same manner as we treat verbs, with exactly simi- 
lar participial modifications as compound forms, or tenses. 

!N"oTE (6). — There has arisen much controversy among the grammarians 
about some of the constructions formed with verbal nouns in ing. Many 
are disposed to reject forms wliich are sanctioned by reputable and very 
general usage, because they do not conform with their notions of what is, 
or rather what ought to be, pure grammatical English. "We have, with the 
valuable assistance of Mr. E. Taylor, attempted to establish two points 
which will enable us to reconcile most of these rejected or suspected forms 
with the general laws of language. These are, that the verbal noun in ing 
is distinct in origin from the participle — that is, it is not the participle sub- 
stantively employed ; and that this verbal, as well as the participle, from its 
own nature — owing to the ^natter which it expresses, as described in the 
preceding note — is susceptible of the modifications which belong to verbs, 
as well as of those which belong to nouns. The full admission of these two 
points, which are settled, at least to our satisfaction, will set aside the objec- 
tions to many of the constructions referred to. Mr. Grant seems to us to 
have laid down the correct view of this matter in the passage which we sub- 
join, though he was not, so far as we can see, acquainted with the fact that 
the verbal noun in ing had an origin independent of the jDartieiple. His 
remarks are not the less valuable on this account. " Ifotwithstanding the 
objections of Lowth, L. Murray, &c., it may be safely affirmed that the seve- 
ral phraseologies, 'by sending them,' 'by sending of them,' 'by the sending 
them,' 'by the sending of them,' in all which the word in ing is evidently 
nothing but a verbal noun, are sanctioned by the usage of our best writers, 
and are perfectly accordant with the genius of the language." — Grant's Eng- 
lish Grammar, p. 196. Lond. 1813. 



§ 141.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. VERBAL NOUNS IN ING. 441 

Mr. Grant adds in a note, " I certainly prefer, as forms, * by sending 
them,' and 'hj the sending of them;' and allow that, when the verbal is 
preceded by the article, the of is very rarely omitted." With this, too, we 
agree ; but we would rather say that when of is placed before the noun 
which modifies the verbal, the article is always properly employed; but 
omitted when the verbal is followed by an objective modification. The 
presence of the preposition and noun renders the article necessary, not the 
levei'se. When a noun is rendered determinate by a noun and preposi- 
tion modification, the article, or some other determinative, is used to indicate 
its determinateness. But the article is not used before a verbal modified by 
an adjective (since the two words together express a conception which may 
be regarded as single — see note in next sectio7i), except when the verbal and 
its objective modification are farther modified by another complement ; as, 
for example. The sending such a message at that particulae crisis, was im- 
proper. The article in such forms of expression, should, no doubt, be em- 
ployed, in conformity with the laws of language, to indicate that sending 
suck a message is rendered determinate by the words at that ^particular 
crisis. {See Additional Observations on Determinatives, § 158.) 

" But there is a manifest difference," says Mr. Grant in the same note, 
"in sense, between 'hearing the philosopher,' or ' the hearing the philoso- 
pher,' and ' the hearing of the philosopher ;' between ' preaching Christ,' or 
* the preaching Christ,' and ' the preaching of Christ.' In the forms which 
do not contain of, the nouns philosopher and Christ are passive ; in the forms 
containing of, these words would generally be considered as active. Still, 
however, in this sense, the substitution of the Saxon for the Norman geni- 
tive would render the meaning clearer ; thus, ' the philosopher's hearing,' 
' Christ's preaching.' In the course of a trial. Lord Ellenborough used the 
following words ; ' I think the plea does not justify the killing of the game- 
keeper.' I^ow, I do allow that here the gamekeeper mai/ be supposed to be 
either active or passive. According to the meaning intended, he was active, 
the trial being for ' a gamekeeper's killing a gentleman's dog ;' which last 
phraseology evidently removes the ambiguity." 

The ambiguity in such expressions does not arise from the verbal, but 
from the double use of what Mr. Grant calls the " ISTorman genitive." This 
is employed both subjectively and objectively. Thus, The love of God, may 
mean either the love of which God is the subject, or that of which God is 
the object — God's love towards us, or our love towards God. It would be 
good perhaps always, when there is danger of ambiguity, to employ the 
English or Saxon genitive subjectively ; and the Norman genitive, or modi- 
fication with of, objectively. 

We have given place to these oljservations, because some of the gramma- 
rians have mixed up these ambiguities with the consideration of the verbal 
noun ov gerund, which in most of its uses they treat as a participle, and have 
thus increased the confusion in which they have involved themselves and. 
tlieir readers. 



442 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 142. 

Confusion arises we believe in some instances from the fact that nouns 
in ing are often used with meanings distinct from their gerundive and proper 
verbal meaning. We have already noticed that some words in ing, agree- 
ing exactly in form with the gerimds, have become concrete nouns. Thus, 
writing is used to signify a sotnething written, as well as the act of xoriting. 
There is little danger of confounding meanings so distinct as these. But 
there are other variations more slight than this, which overlooked might 
lead to error — to the attributing of that which arises from a variation of thti 
meaning of a word to a distinct grammatical function. Thus when I say, 
Your eon's writing is admirable, I mean by writing either manner of writing, 
or some definite specimen of your son's writing, not the action of writing, 
or that which the gerund strictly taken indicates. " Your horse's running," 
may mean either the manner of his rionning, or his act of running. Dr. 
Priestley, in a much vexed passage, having confounded these two senses of 
running (which are both in common eveiy day use, the first especially in 
speaking of the performance of horses), has fallen into the error of either 
making a distinction where there is no difference, or of stating the difference 
incorrectly, and has hence been led, with some who have followed him, to 
contradict his own carefully established principles. 

"We would caution the young student in English composition to guard 
against employing verbals in any way which might occasion .awkwardness 
or ambiguity. Better in all such cases to resort to the use of the complete 
accessory. Many even of our good writers might have improved their style, 
by attention to such counsel. 

We might here notice that the participle or verbal adjective is some- 
times used for the verbal noun — the participial for the gerund form. For 
example, Catiline being smitten with the love of Orestilla was the cause, in- 
stead of Catiline's being smitten, <fec. This is a Latin rather than an Eng- 
lish idiom, and an idiom scarcely worth the trouble of transplanting. The 
English expression is more logical. Catiline, however modified, is not logi- 
cally the subject of the main verb was, but the fact of his being smitten with 
the love of Orestilla. This participial Latin form has, however, been used by 
reputable authors ; and though we would not like, by precept or example, 
to encourage the employment of it to supersede the genuine English idiom, 
we must be contented to restrict ourselves to the proper function of the 
grammarian — viz., to exhibit the usages of the language, and account for 
them so far as he is able, without denouncing such of them as have obtained 
a reception among good society. 

§ 142. CONTEAOTED AoOESSOKIES FORMED WITH InFESTITIVES. (1) 

Nearly all the constructions into which the infinitive enters, except 
when it is employed as the objective modification of an active 

§ 142. (1) What is said of constructions into which infinitives enter? Note the excep- 



§ 142.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. INFINITIVE. 443 

verb,* may be more formally expressed by accessory propositions, (2) We 
have already had occasion, in treating of the various forms of infini- 
tive modification, and in examining the various kinds of accessory pro- 
positions, to notice several of these contracted modes of expression, 
in which the infinitive alone or with accompanying complements fills 
the place of a regular proposition. 

We may here recapitulate a few of these forms. (3) Infinitives some- 
times serve instead of accessories as the subjects of propositions. 
Thus, " To obey is better than sacrifice" == That men should obey is 
better than sacrifice. " To do justice and judgment is more acceptable 
"to the Lord than sacrifice" == That men^ or that we should do justice^ 
&c. We have noticed already that infinitives thus employed instead 
of accessories are sometimes placed after the verb and represented by 
the pronoun it. {See § 103.) 

(4) The infinitive of purpose is a contracted form of the accessory 
of purpose. {See §§ 77, 108.) 

(5) The infinitives which modify nouns and adjectives may also 
generally be regarded as contracted accessories. Thus, The boy has a 
desire to leaen = The boy has a desire that he mat leaen. That 



* The objective modification, whether it consists of an infinitive or of a 
noun of some other kind, is of all modifications that which is least capable 
of being resolved or expanded into an accessory. 

There is scarcely any modification of nouns which cannot be expanded 
into an accessory, as we have already had occasion to notice. A descriptive 
adjective may be so expanded, a genitive case, a noun in apposition, a notm 
and preposition. But many of the modifications of the predicate are less capa- 
ble of this kind of resolution — above all, tlie objective modification, whether 
infinitive or other kind of noun, admits not of this expansion or substitution 
of an accessory. The verb and this modification, as we have already re- 
marked, form only one complete conception. The relation between them is 
more close and inseparable, than that between any other principal word and 
its modification, excepting perhaps that between the verb and the noim 
complementary. In fact, the active verb, without this kind of complement 
expressed or implied, is incomplete or imperfect ; it conveys only part of a 
conception, or, at most, a very indefinite conception. 



lion. (2) Eepeat the substance of the remark about the notice given ah-eady to such con- 
structions. 

(3) Give examples of infinitives used, instead of accessories, as subjects of propositions ; 
and sugo:est the equivalent accessory. ' 

(4) What iufinitive is next mentioned, and for what accessory is it used ? 

(5) Mention the next class of infinitives ; and illustrate by examples, substituting the 
construction with an accessory. 



444 STEUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 142. 

he may learn is here an accessory in apposition, {See §105.) The loy 
is desi'rous that he mat leabx. Here, That he may learn is a substan- 
tive accessory modifying an adjective. {See ^109.) 

(6) In the same manner those infinitives which are attached to ad- 
verbs {see § 96, foot note) may be regarded as contracted accessories. 
Example : -Se does not hiow how to act in this case = He does not 
hiow TS WHAT MA TsyEB TO ACT in tMs co.se = He d.oes not Tcnow how 
HE SHOTJU) ACT in tMs case; or rx what maxxee he should act ; or 
the matsxeb rs" which he sho"cxd act, &c. In the first and second 
forms of the accessory, we may consider How he should act., or In 
what manner he should act., or is to act., as substantive accessories — 
objectives to the verb Icnow ; in the third and more fully developed 
form, In which he should act is an adjective accessory modifying the 
nomi momner. In a similar way, the expressions, He does not under- 
stand WHEis" TO BE silent., He cannot find wheee to best, may be re- 
solved into He does not understand whex or at what time he sHorxD 
BE siLEXT, He cannot find wheee he mat best, or a place ix which 

HE MAT OB CAX BEST. 

(7) All the preceding forms of construction may be treated in 
analysis as Infinitives., either the siibjects of propositions, like other 
nouns, or as Infinitive modifications of the several words to which 
they are attached, agreeably to the instructions given in treating sim- 
ple propositions, not forgetting the fact that they may be expanded 
into complete accessories. (8) But in the analysis of the contracted 
accessories which follow it will be expedient to treat them always as the 
representatives of accessories, and the proposition with which they are 
connected as a componnd proposition. 

(9) We have already noticed (§121: 19) that the accessory 
indicating JEqual Intensity hy Example., or by the^#ec^; produced, 
is often contracted into an infinitive form. Example : The vjeather 
is so WARM, AS TO DISSOLVE the snoiv on the mountains = The 
weather is so waem, that it dissolves the snoio on the mountains. 
This must be analyzed by reference to the accessory which it repre- 
sents. (10) "We may call it the Contracted Accessory indicating 
Equal Intensity hy Effect. 

(6) What is said of infinitives attached to adverbs? ' lUnstrate fullv by examples, making 
the required substitution of accessories for infinitives. 

(7) What is said in reference to the treatment of the preceding forms of construction ? 
(S) What remark is made about the contracted accessories which follow ? 

(9) Mention an accessory which is often changed into an infinitive, and illustrate by an 
example. (10) How may this contracted accessory be named ? 



§ 142.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. INFINITIVE. 445 

(11) Punctuation. — Unsettled. Best perhaps to insert a comma. 
Exercise. — The learner may furnish a few examples of this con- 
struction. 

(12) There is another of these infinitives used to modify adjec- 
tives, which it is the more necessary to notice here, because there is 
no corresponding complete accessory in common use; and because, 
on the other hand, it is manifestly a contracted form of accessory, 
and cannot well be explained as a simple infinitive modification. 
We have examples of the construction to which we allude in the 
following propositions. Henry was wiser than to act in that 
way. That man is more brave than to do S2ich a cowardly ac- 
tion. He is more learned than to commit such a blunder, &c. 
The conjunctive word than indicates clearly that this form of ex- 
pression is to be regarded as a contracted, or, perhaps, rather an 
elliptical accessory.^ 

(13) This infinitive may be regarded as representing an accessory 
indicating greater intensity by example. (14) This kind of modifica- 
tion is rarely made in our language by a complete accessory ; but we 
may suppose the construction when fully developed to be something 
like the following : This man is wiser than to act in this manner is 
wise, or would de wise ; or This man is loiser than that he should act 
in this manner. This last is similar to the Latin construction, though 
in our language it seems a little awkward. IVe miglit expand the con- 
struction into He is wiser than it loould he wise to act in this manner. 
"We might expand it perhaps in other ways ; but none of them appears 
exactly agreeable to our idiom. When the learner meets with such 
constructions, it will be necessary to refer to this account of them. 
(15) They can be called Contracted Accessories indicating greater 
intensity by example. 

(16) Punctuation. — Unsettled. Comma not generally inserted. 

* Owing to the presence of thayi, we cannot treat this as a simple in- 
finitive modification of an adjective, or an infinitive of purpose, as we can 
treat the infinitive in such expressions as. He is wise enough, or too wise 

TO LEARN. 



(11) Punctiiation ? 

(12) Repeat the substance of what is said of another contracted accessory formed by an 
infinitive. Adduce examples for illustration. (13) How may this contracted accessory be 
regarded ? (14) Illustrate by examples. (15) Give a name to the contracted accessory. 

(16) Punctuation? 



446 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 142. 

Exercise. — ^Furnish a number of examples of this construction. 

(lY) Besides these there are two other uses of the infinitive, 
which it will be necessary to treat always as contracted accessories, 
and not as mere infinitive modification-s in simple propositions. In 
the analysis of the constructions in which these occur, we should 
always produce the accessory to which they are equivalent, or 
which they represent. In treating the preceding contracted acces- 
sory, this course is not recommended, because the complete acces- 
sory is not always found in common use, or readily exhibited. 

(18) One of these uses of the infinitive has been called the In- 
Jinitive Absolute^ because it (with its complements) stands gramma- 
tically independent of the rest of the construction. (19) We have 
examples in the following propositions ; " To confess the truth, I 
was to blame;" To proceed with the story ; To conclude this 
narrative ; To begin loith the Jirst, &c. All these may be regard- 
ed as contracted accessories of purpose = 7w order that I may con- 
fess the truth ; In order that I may proceed in my story ; &c. 

(20) In such constructions as these, there is besides the employ- 
ment of a contracted accessory, a suppression of the leading propo- 
sition, which this accessory is designed to modify. (21) The full 
construction in the first example is, / admit or declare, in order that 
I may confess the truth, that I was to hlame. (22) In the contract- 
ed and elKptical form of construction, the proposition That I was to 
hlame, which in the full construction is an objective accessory propo- 
sition modifying the principal verb, assumes the appearance and form 
of the principal proposition. (23) In analysis, such constructions 
should be expanded, and the suppressed parts supplied. We may 
call the infinitive with its complements thus employed, The Con- 
tracted Accessory of Purpose. 

(24) Infinitives, apparently absolute or independent, are employed 
sometimes instead of other accessories. Examples : " For every object 

(17) Eepeat the remarks made concerning two other infinitives used in forming con- 
tracted accessories. 

(IS) What is the first of these infinitives called ? (19) Illustrate by examples. 

(20) What suppression occurs in constructions of this kind? (21) Supply the full con- 
struction. (22) Wbat remark is made in reference to the proposition Iwas to Mame in the 
example ? (23) How should such constructions he treated in analysis? 

(24) Give examples of infinitives absolute used for other forms of accessories. 



§ 142.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. INFINITIVE. 447 

has several faces, so to sjjea'k, by which it may be presented to ns." 
So to speah is here equivalent to, If I may so speaTc^ or, If you allow 
me so to speah^ v^hicli are conditional accessories. 

"Ah, fool! to exult in a glory so vain." 

This is equivalent to Fool that he (man) is ! because he exults, 
or that he exults "in a glory so vain!" That is, the infinitive here 
serves as an accessory of cause. Possibly infinitives may be found 
placed independently to serve the functions of other kinds of acces- 
sories. 

(25) Such constructions as, " To 5e, or not to &e, that is the ques- 
tion," v^e do not consider as belonging to this class of examples. It 
may be questioned whether a revery, such as this is selected from, is 
to be subjected to strict grammatical analysis. Hamlet's language, 
true to the condition of his mind, is incoherent, as presented by the 
poet. But if it is to be subjected to grammatical analysis. To le^ or not to 
'be — the choice between existence and non-existence — is the real subject 
to is^ that which it is asserted is the question. There is a repetition of 
the subject in the determinative that. (26) In such examples, as in the 
expressions, " Youv fathers^ where are they f and \hQ prophets., do they 
live for ever ?" and " That the soul be without knowledge, it is not 
good," &c., there is what we may call in reference to grammar an em- 
phatic repetition of the subject — a repetition intended for rhetorical 
efiect. By this contrivance, the prominent conception in the proposi- 
tion is presented -first and alone ; the speaker pauses upon it, and 
leaves the hearer's mind to pause for a moment upon it, and in pro- 
ceeding to finish his assertion assumes a representative of the subject, 
which receiving emphatic force gives still greater prominence to the 
principal conception. (27) How much would be detracted from the 
force of these expressions by reducing them within the limits of the 
usual construction ? To ie or not to he is the question, Where are 
your fathers? Do the prophets live for ever? are forms of construction 
mamfestlj fat when compared with the original examples. 

The second construction, which must be treated in the same 
way, and not as a simple infinitive modification, is one already noticed 
in treating of the substantive accessory employed as an objective 



(25) Eepeat what is said about such constructions as, " To be, or not to lie, that is the 
question." (26) What explanation is given of the repetition of the subject in this and in such 
examples as, " your fathers, where are they "? (2T) What would be the effect of reducing 
such expressions within the limits of the usual form of construction ? Illustrate by ex- 
ample. 



448 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 142. 

modification. (§ 107 : 6 — 9.) (28) It consists of a noun or pro- 
noun in the accusative case and an infinitive, together forming the ob- 
jective modification of a verb. (29) We submit the following as 
examples of this construction. 

" I know thee to le expert in all customs," &c. = / hiow that thou 
art expert^ &c., which is a substantive accessory employed as an ob- 
jective modification. " And saw no harm come to him" = And saio 
THAT NO HARM CAME to him. The Verb to see is, we believe, rarel}^ 
followed by an infinitive. It is often followed by a substantive acces- 
sory with conjunctive that^ sometimes by an interrogative substantive 
accessory with whether or if. He wishes his son to leaen graramar 
= Re wishes that his son shall leaen grammar. I expected Hiit 
TO COME = / expected that he would come, " I feel the tahle to 'be 
hard" = //egZ that the table is hard. 1 find him to be a good 
icorlcman. " I found his opinions to accord with mine' = I found 
that his opinions accorded, &c. " I commanded t\iQ p)^ople to te num- 
bered" == / commanded that the people should be numljered. " His 
Lord commanded him to be sold" = Commanded that he should be 
sold [(30) Here the party to whom the command is given is sup- 
pressed; namely, in the first example, the officers of government, and, 
in the second, the other servants of the Lord. This party, if ex- 
pressed after commanded., would according to the original use of this 
verb be the dative modification. Sometimes the party to whom the 
command is given and the party which would form the subject, when 
the full accessory follows the verb command are identical ; as in the 
example " Jonadab commanded his sons not to drinh wine" =Jona^ 
dah commanded his so7is, that they should not drinJc wine. His sons 
maybe regarded in the original example either as the dative after 
commanded., or the accusative before to drinTc ; or perhaps as fulfilling 
both functions (partly by implication). If we regard the verb com- 
mand as taking the name of the person to whom the command is 
addressed as its objective modification., as, we believe, it is now com- 
monly regarded, all these infinitives after it, especially that in the last 
example, must be considered as infinitives expressing the purpose, or 
end for which the command is given. This way of viewing the con- 
struction is less accordant with the original use of the verb command.^ 
less consistent with the old English idiom, and in other respects objec- 
tionable. (/Se6§79. iVb^e^. 219.)] 

(2S) Describe the second construction above alluded to. (29) Adduce examples, and 
transform the infinitive construction in each into an accessory. Repeat the remark in re- 
ference to the verb see. [(80) Repeat the substance of the remarks on the verb command.] 



§ 142.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. INFINITIVE. 449 

(31) There are several other verbs, besides those employed in the 
examples, such as imagine^ suppose^ consider^ helieve^ deem^ &c., which 
occasionally take after them a contracted accessory of this kind. But 
this construction is far from being so common in English, as it is in 
the Latin and some other languages. 

(32) This construction may be distinguished from others, in which 
infinitives perform a part, by the fact, that it can be exchanged for an 
objective accessory, having the same word which as accusative pre- 
cedes the infinitive, for its subject noun. In this manner it can be 
readily distinguished from the infinitive which indicates the jpurjpose^ 
or end of the verb's action. This latter sort of infinitive cannot be 
exchanged for an accessory having the accusative which precedes the 
infinitive for subject, without a change of sense. The difference be- 
tween these two kinds of construction may be best seen by trying exam- 
ples of the infinitive indicating purpose^ or end employed after some of 
the verbs in the examples given above. (For some of these verbs admit 
of both constructions after them, but with results, as regards meaning, 
markedly dift'erent.) Thus, " That we may find grace to help in time 
of need." If, as in the examples adduced above, we substitute for 
this. That we may find that grace will, can, &c., help us in time of 
need^ we totally change the meaning. To retain the same meaning, 
we must retain the word grace, which is the true objective modifica- 
tion, in the principal proposition, and supply a subject in the accessory 
proposition ; thus. That tee may find grace, that it mat help us, 
&c. " They found nothing to answer'''' (Neh. v. 8), in like manner 
must be changed, not into They found that nothing would answer^ which 
changes the sense ; but into They found nothing^ in order that they 
might answer^ or nothing they could answer. In these examples the 
accessory is added after the real objective modification.^ and shows the 
purpose or end of the action of finding " grace^'' and finding " nothing.''^ 
Besides, the accessory is of an entirely distinct class ; it is not as in 
the former examples an odjective suhstantive accessory ^hnt an adverbial 
accessory of purpose. 

(33) In analysis, we may recognise this construction by the 
name of the accusative and infinitive contracted objective accessory ; 
or we may call it, for the sake of greater brevity, by the name 



(31) Enumerate other verbs which occasionally take after them a contracted accessory 
of this kind. Is this construction very common in our language? 

(32) Eepeat the substance of the directions given to enable the learner to distinguish this 
use of the infinitive from other uses, illustrating by examples. Write the examples. 

(33) What is the name given to this construction ? (3-t) Eepeat the caution. 



450 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 142. 

familiar to Latin gi'ammarians, The Infinitive with the Accusative he- 
fore it, (34) taking care to distinguish it from the infinitive of 
purpose, and bearing in mind that the whole construction — accusa- 
tive and infinitive with their complements, if they have any — forms 
the Objective Modification of the principal verb. 

(35) This construction may be distinguished by the fact that, like 
the simple objective modification, it answers to the question formed by 
WHAT with the principal verb. Thus, taking the example, " I feel the 
table to be hard," the answer to What do I feel 1 is, " The table to de 
hardy " I know thee to be expert." What do I Tcnow ? Answer, 
" Thee to be expert." On the contrary, it requires the two questions 
made with what and to or for what purpose to elicit in answer 
both accusative and infinitive, when an accusative and infinitive of 
purpose follow a verb. To illustrate by examples : That gentleman 
has found, or procured, or engaged an able tutor to instruct his son. 
What has the gentleman found, or procured, or engaged ? Answer : 
An able tutor. For what purpose has he found, &c,, an able tutor ? 
Answer : To instruct his son. The Christian finds grace to help in 
time of need. What does the Christian find ? Answer : Grace. For 
what purpose does he find grace ? To help in time of need.* If we 
propose these two questions in the case of an accusative and infinitive 
contracted objective accessory, we shall find that the answer to the 
first question exhausts the matter; and that the second question is 
irrelevant. To illustrate by an example ; " I found his opinions to 
accord with mine." What did I find ? His opinions ? No ; but " his 
opinions to accord with mine" = That his opinions accorded with 
mine. For what purpose, or end, or in order to what did I find that 



* Perhaps such propositions might be employed or understood so that 
the infinitive would be equivalent, not to an accessory of purpose, but an 
adjective accessory. The Christian finds grace that will help him in the 
time of need. The gentleman has procured a tutor, who will instruct his 
son. Explained in this way, grace and the accompanying accessory form 
an objective modification — an answer only to the question, What does the 
Christian find? But this is a different sense from that contemplated above, 
and from that intended in the passage which we have slightly altered — Kat 
%a/?tj/ eupwixeu, EI2 evKuipov ^or]^€iau. Heb. 4: 16. 



(35) Describe a way of detecting this construction by a form of question. Illusti-ate this 
by examples ; and show that the<question Avill not apply to other infinitives preceded by 
accusatives. (36) Punctuation ? Answer. No interpunction. 



§ 143.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. PARTICIPLES. 451 

This opinions accorded with mine? There is no response to this in the 
example. The question is irrelevant. Compound infinitives are also 
used in this kind of construction. Luke ii. 44. 

ExEEOiSES I. II. &c. — Furnish examples of this construction. 

§ 143. OONTEACTED ACCESSORIES FORMED BY THE HELP OF PARTI- 
CIPLES. — (1) Participles being a species of descriptive adjectives — ad- 
jectives v^hich describe an object by the attribution of action progres- 
sive or completed* — the remark already made, that, perhaps, all 
adjectives might be regarded as contracted accessories, applies to this 
class of words. (2) We shall, however, in this place notice only the 
uses of the participle, in which it manifestly performs the part of a 
verb, and the construction in which it stands serves instead of an ac- 
cessory proposition. (3) All other participles we leave to be treated 
as simple descriptive adjectives. t 

(4) We here distinguish two modes in which a participle is em- 
ployed. (5) First, a participle is employed as the modification of a 
noun performing a function in a proposition, either as subject, or 
as a modifying woi'd ; (6) and, secondly, a participle is employed 
with a noun which performs no function in a complete proposition, 
but stands grammatically independent of the principal proposition, 
to which the construction formed by said noun and participle, with, 
or without accompanying modifications, serves logically as an 
accessory. 

(V) The participle in the first case can be treated in the same 

* Even the participle being, may be regai'ded as implying action in some 
sense — activity in opposition to mere passivity. The perfect participles ex- 
press, of course, action completed. 

f The reader will remember that whenever a verbal in ing performs 
any function of a noun, we do not class it with the participles, but treat it 
as belonging to a distinct species of words. Some grammarians have caused 
much confusion, both to themselves and their readers, by regarding the 
verbal in ing as always a participle when it takes after it an objective, or ad- 
verbial modification ; though often in such cases it performs as clearly some 
function of a noun, as when they admit it to be a substantive — viz., when it 
is accompanied only by the modifications appropriate to other classes of 
nouns. 

§ 143. (1) Eepeat the remark about participles. (2) To what uses of the participle do 
wo restrict our notice here ? (3) How are participles to be treated in other cases ? (4) How 
many modes of using participles may be distinguished ? (5) Describe the first mode. (6) 
Describe the second mode. 

(7) How may the participle be treated, when employed in the first mode ? 



462 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 143. 

manner with other adjective modifications. (8) "When employed 
in the second way, the noun and j^articiple must be treated as a 
pecuhar construction which does not come within the reach of any 
of tlie modes of anal3^sis yet considered. They must of necessity be 
treated as a contracted accessory. The participle cannot be treated 
as a simple adjective modification. 

(9) "We furnish some examples of the first kind of construction, 
and place over against the propositions of a simple /crm in which they 
occur equivalent compound propositions, Avith complete accessories, 
instead of the participial construction. "The neighbors hearing 
what was going forward, came flocking about us"=When the jsteigh- 
BOES HEARD, &c., Accessory of Coincident Time. '■'■So saying, he dis- 
missed them"=^s he so said, he dismissed themP Same species of 
accessory. 

" Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, 
Aspiring to be angels, men rebel" 
•= If angels fell when they aspired, or because they aspired, &c. ; men 
rebel, when or because they aspire, &c. — Accessory of Causality. {See § 
125: 15, 16.) Embarrassed by mdgar cares, he cannot spend his time 
in making himself wiser, &[,Q,.=Because he is embarrassed, &c. — Accessory 
of Causality. " The two ladies, having heard reports of us from some 
malicious person, were that day set out for London." (10) The con- 
struction with this compound participle can be expanded most conve- 
niently into a CO-ORDINATE proposition, preceding that which is logi- 
cally the principal proposition, and which is really modified by it, 
though the construction is co-ordinate, and not of the accessory form. 
Thus, The two ladies had heard reports, &c., and had set out for London 
that morning. We shall take farther notice of co-ordinate propositions 
employed with a modifying effect, when we come to treat of co-ordi- 
nate construction, (See § 146.) 

" All the tumult of a guilty world. 
Tost by ungenerous possions, sinks away" 
^=Which is tost by ungenerous passions. An adjective accessory, "i?^- 
ceived us falling''^ = Received u^ when, or as we fell — Accessory of 
Coincident Time. 



(8) How must the participle be treated, when employed ia the second mode ? 

(9) Copy examples, and transform the participial construction into an equivalent acces- 
soiy in each case, naming the accessory. (10) Eepeat what is said of constructions with the 
compounds formed with haiiing. 



§ 143.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. PARTICIPLES. 453 

(11) When, as in these last examples, the participle modifies a sub- 
stantive which performs a function different from that of subject noun, 
it is not always so easy to change the participial construction into an 
accessory, because the participial construction is sometimes the only 
mode of expression in use. When this is the case, the participle may 
be treated like a descriptive adjective modification. Even when it 
can be readily exchanged for an accessory, it may, as we said above, be 
treated in ordinary analysis as a simple modification. But we advise 
the learner to exercise himself in trying to supply the equivalent con- 
struction ; not so much for the purpose of obtaining a satisfactory an- 
alysis of the language, as for the important purpose of increasing his 
facilities for writing with elegance and harmony. Sometimes, the full 
construction, with a complete accessory, will be found preferable in 
reference to style ; at other times, the participial construction will be 
found more compact and forcible. It is highly advantageous, for the 
purpose of speaking and writing with fluency and smoothness, to be 
able to avail ourselves readily of all the resources which language 
affords for varying or improving our modes of expression. 

(12) Punctuation. — When a participial construction is separated 
from the noun which it modifies, it is cut oif from the rest of the con- 
struction by a comma, or commas, in the same manner as a circum- 
stantial adverb, or adverbial phrase. This construction falls under 
the same rules, as tointerpunction, with the circumstantial modification. 

We add a few poetical examples of the participial construction, 
which the learner may transform into accessory propositions. 

" He sung, Darius, great and good ! 

By too severe a fate, 

Fallen ! fallen ! fallen ! fallen I 

Fallen from his high estate. 

And loeltering in his blood !" 
" War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; 

Honor, but an empty bubble ; 

Never ending, still beginning, 

Fighting still, and still destroying" 
" The Passions oft, to hear her shell, 

Throng'd around her magic cell, 

Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting, 

-Possesses? beyond the Muses' painting." 

(11) What is said of constructions in which the participle modifies a noun which is not 
the subject of a proposition ? 
0.2) Punctuation? 



454 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 143. 

" And dashing soft from rocks around, 
Bubbling runnels join'd the sound, 
Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole; 

Or o'er some haunted stream, with fond delay — 
Round a holy calm diffusing, 
Love of peace and lovely musing — ■ 
In hollow murmurs died away." 
" Vital spark of heavenly flame ! 
Quit, oh quit this mortal frame : 
Trembling, hoping, lingering, flying,^'' &c. 
" Defeating oft the labors of the year, 

The sultry south collects a potent blast." 
" Strained to the root, the stooping forest pours 
A rustling shower of yet untimely leaves." 
Exercises I. II., &c., furnish examples of this construction, accom- 
panied by equivalent compound propositions with complete acces- 
sories. 

Noun and Participle Contracted Accessory, or Noun 
AND Participle Absolute. (13) We next proceed to give ex- 
amples of the participial construction, consisting of a participle 
attached to a noun which performs no grammatical function in the 
principal proposition. 

" The command devohing upon Eustace St. Pierre, he offered to 
capitulate with Edward." " This deing resolved^ my wife undertook 
to manage the business herself" '• The door 'being opened^ the child 
addressed him." See an example in Heb. xi : 39, 40. — "The sea and 
the waves roa/ring ; men's hearts failing them for fear," &c. 

" Where rapture burns with rapture, every line 

"With rising frenzy ^r^c?." 
" Thus, darkness aiding intellectual light, 

And sacred silence whispering truths divine, 

And truths divine converting pain to peace. 

My song the midnight raven has outwinged," &e. 
" This said, he sat" = When this loas said,'''' &Q. 
" The service past, around the pioiis man, 

With ready zeal each honest rustic ran." 
" But see the fading many-colored woods, 

(13) Give a few examples of participial construction of which the noun and participlo 
are independent. These may be written. 



§ 143.] NOUN AND PARTICIPE ABSOLUTE. 465 

Shade deepening over shade, the country round 

Imbrown." 
" Shade, unperceived, so softening into shade ; 

And all ^o forming an harmonious whole." 
The learner having transcribed these examples, may, after study- 
ing the following remarks, be exercised in transforming the substan- 
tives and participles into equivalent constructions, whether compound 
or co-ordinate propositions. 

(14) We may call this construction The Noun and Paeticiple 
Absolute, or Noun and Participle Conteacted Acoessoey. (15) It 
is most commonly resolvable into an Accessory of Coincident Time, 
preceded by the conjunctive adverbs when or while ; as in the exam- 
ple above, " This 'being resolved," is equivalent to When this was re- 
solved^ " my wife," &c. Some of these participial constructions are 
equivalent to an accessory of causality, for instance that referred to 
in Heb. xi, 39 : 40, " God having provided some better thing for us," 
&c. = Foi\ or decause God had provided^ &c.* 



* This construction is commonly called by the grammarians The Nomina- 
tive Absolute. Like the accusative and infinitive contracted accessory, to 
which it is in some respects analogous, this is a very common constrviction 
in the Greek and Latin languages ; but it is a construction uncongenial to 
modern English — an exotic derived from a different soil. For, though a 
similar form of construction was not uncommon in Anglo-Saxon, it seems to 
have disappeared in the early English of the old chroniclers, and to have 
been reintroduced, as at present used, by the learned in imitation of Latin 
models. It is known in Latin by the name of the Ablative Absolute, in 
Greek by the name of the Genitive Absolute ; the ablative and genitive cases 
being employed in these languages respectively in the formation of this con- 
struction. In Anglo-Saxon the dative (which performs the functions both of 
the Latin dative and ablative) is the case employed in this construction. We 
may still find examples of the employment of the dative form (now com- 
monly, but improperly, recognised as exclusively an accusative form) in 
some respectable English authors. Milton uses the expression, "Him de- 
stroyed, or won." And Archbishop Tillotson, " Him only excepted." These 
expressions must be rejected as solecisms, except we choose to defend them 
as remains of the Anglo-Saxon construction, or admit the use of him for the 
nominative case, as, on some occasions, legitimate. The compound himself 
is often so employed. We cannot, we think, defend these constructions as 
remains of the Anglo-Saxon idioni, since this mode of expression seems to 

(14) How may we name this construction ? (15) Into what Idnd of accessory is it most 
commonly resolvable ? Illustrate by examples. 



456 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 143. 

(16) It is, in many (perhaps in most) instances where this par- 
ticipial construction could be introduced, more congenial to our idiom 
instead of either noun and participle or accessory, to employ a Co-or- 
dinate Proposition. This co-ordinate proposition is placed before the 
principal, proposition which it logically modifies, though this is not 
decidedly indicated by the form of the construction. The coincidence, 
or (wliat is nearly the same) immediate subsequence in time, or what- 
ever happens to be the relation between the two propositions, is to be 
gathered only from mere juxtaposition, and order of arrangement. 
{See § 146.) 

(1*7) When a noun and participle absolute occur in analysis, 
we give the name of the constrnction, and furnish the equivalent 
accessory, or equivalent co-ordinate construction, if this happens to 
be more agreeable to our idiom. 

(18) Kemaek I. — Constructions of this kind are found consisting 
of a participle without a noun expressed. Examples : This conduct^ 
VIEWING- it in the most fawrahle light^ reflects discredit on his cha- 
racter = This conduct, we viewing it, &c., or, with an accessory, 
This conduct, if we view it, &c. " His conduct, generally speaTcing, 
is honorable" = "We, or I speaTcing generally ; or If we speak in a 
general way, &c. The loy is far advanced in learning, considering 
HIS age= If we consider his age. This may be distinguished by the 
name of the Participle Absolute. In all the examples above given, it 
seems equivalent to a conditional accessory. 

(19) Eem. II. Sometimes, on the contrary, the participle is suppress- 
ed in this kind of construction, especially by the poets. But in such 
cases it is easily supplied, and ought to be supplied as the first step in 
the analysis of such elliptical forms of expression. Examples : 

" The low well bent, and smart the spring, 
Yice seems already slain," &c. 
= The low BEING well lent, and the spring being smart. 



have become obsolete in our language long before the times of Milton and 
Tillotson ; and if we should make allowance for the use of him as a nomina- 
tive in these and similar instances, it must be with the caution, that the 
practice is not to he imitated. {See § 155 : 14, 15.) 

(16) What other construction for the same purpose is more congenial to our idiom? 
(IT) How are we to treat this construction in analysis ? 

(18) Eepeat the substance of the remark on the participle absolute, and illustrate by ex- 
amples. 

(19) Repeat substance of Remark II. and illustrate by examples. 



§ 143.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. PARTICIPLES. 457 

"Whilst tliou, more happy power, fair Charity, 

Triumphant sister, greatest of the three, 

Thy office and thy nature still the same. 

Lasting thy lamp^ and unconsumed the Jiame^ 

Shalt still survive," &c. 
The participle 'being is here implied with the nouns office^ nature^ lamp 
andjlame ; and must be supplied in analysis. 

(20) PuNCTTjATioisr. — The noun and participle absolute must always 
be separated from the rest of the discourse by a comma, or by commas, 
when it does not stand first in the sentence. 

Exercises I., II., &c. — Furnish examples of constructions contain- 
ing the noun and participle absolute ; and present in contrast with 
them equi\ralent forms of expression containing either an accessory, 
or in suitable cases, a co-ordinate proposition, instead of the partici- 
pial^ or independent form of construction. 

(20) Punctuation? 



CHAPTEE X. 



C03IBIXATI0X or IXDEPEXDIZs'T PE0P0SITI02^'S. 

§ 144. (1) We have now finished the important part of onr pro- 
posed task — the analysis of the structure of propositions. TVe have con- 
sidered the subject Rnd the predicaU — the parts essential to every pro- 
position; the subject noun and rerJ, which are the principal, the promi- 
nent or central constituents of these essential members of proposi- 
tions ; and the various modifications which nouns and verbs receive 
from inflection.^ from singU words employed to complete them, and 
from projjositians employed to complete them. (2) It now remains to 
consider the connection of propositions (simple or compound) gram- 
mntically iadependent of each other, in order to form discourse; 
and with this the connection of independent members of propositions, 
and independent complements or modifications which enter into the 
structure of propositions. The connection or combination of indepen- 
dent propositions will chiefly engage our attention, but the combina- 
tion of independent members under the form of a single assertion, and 
of independent complements modifying the same principal word must 
not be forgotten.* (3) Propositions grammatically independent are, 
when connected together, sometimes called co-ordAnate propositions to 
distinguish them from subordinate or accessory propositions, used to 
modify other propositions, to which, on this account, they are regarded 
as subservient or subordinate. Independent members and complements 
may also be called co-ordinate members and co-ordinate complements. 



* It must be remembered that we here speat of propositions, members 
of propositions, and complements as gravnnatically independent — of inde- 
pendence as regards construction, no*t of absolute logical independence. 

§ 144 (1) Eecapitulate progress made. (2) State what remains to be done. (3; What 
name is given to independent propositions when combined ? To independent members and 
complements combined ? And what name to the connecting or combining of such proposi- 
tions ? 



§ 144.] COMBINATION OF INDEPENDENT PKOPOSITIONS. 459 

The connecting or combining of independent propositions may be 
called co-ordinate construction^ or the construction of discourse^ as dis- 
tinguished from the construction of propositions. 

General Remaeks. — (4) It may be proper here to remark that inde- 
pendent propositions, uttered in succession, and -without coherence, 
do not form what we call discourse. Speech is a representation of 
thought, discourse a representation of Si process of thought. N"ow, in 
thinking, wliat passes in a sane man's mind is not an endless succession 
of scattered incoherent thoughts, but thoughts connected together, 
each thought suggesting the succeeding thought, in accordance with 
certain laws of association. Even in the most desultory conversation 
of a man of sound mind, there is a regular succession of thought com- 
municated to those whom he addresses ; and if he expresses a thought 
which seems manifestly foreign to the general purport of his discourse, 
the hearer is disappointed, and feels ready to ask, what connection has 
this with the subject under discussion. Much more do we expect this 
kind of coherence — this connection of the thoughts and of the propo- 
sitions which express them — in a regular and carefully prepared dis- 
course, whether spoken or written. 

(5) "When the train of thought in a discourse is natural and cohe- 
rent, and the words chosen to express it appropriate, and well ar- 
ranged, the mere juxtaposition of the propositions often serves to indi- 
cate sufficiently the nature of their connection. Hence it often hap- 
pens that no word or sign is employed to unite consecutive independ- 
ent propositions. But because no connective word is used, we must not 
conclude that there is no connection. On the contrary, propositions 
most closely connected by the train of thought which they express, 
often least need the aid of connectives. 

(6) If only connection — mere joining together of Independent Pro- 
positions were to be effected, a single connective would be sufficient 
for this purpose. Indeed, we might in this case dispense altogether 
with connective words, and indicate connection by mere juxtaposition. 
But there are other relations, besides that of being linked together in 
expressing a train of thought, subsisting between co-ordinate proposi- 
tions, though these relations are not those of grammatical dependence. 
Some of these relations are shown by the contrivances adopted in 
co-ordinate construction. The words used for the purpose cf combin- 
ing such propositions often, if not always, imply more than mere con- 



(4) State the substance of this paragi-aph. 

(5) State the substance of what is said about the omission of connective words. 

(6) Explain the reason that we have more than one connective for independent proposi- 



460 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 145. 

nection. (7) The words thus employed are called Conjunctions^ though 
they ought to be carefully distinguished from those conjunctions o.^^ 
conjunctive woj'ds which serve to connect accessory with principal pro- 
positions. When we wish to distinguish these conjunctions from those 
employed with accessories we may call them Co ?ij mictions, or Connec- 
tives of Co-ordination., or simply Connectives. 

(8) All these connectives serve one purpose in common, viz. : they 
indicate that the construction is co-ordinate, as distinct from the con- 
nection of principal and accessory in compound propositions. 

(9) But besides this common purpose, these words serve peculiar 
and distinct purposes. This fact, that distinct purposes are served by 
co-ordinate construction, implies the possibility of dividing such con- 
struction into separate species, according to the several purposes which 
it effects. (10) "We shall call attention to three well marked species of 
Co-ordinate Construction, each serving a distinct purpose, besides the 
common purpose of indicating co-ordination. We shall treat each of 
these three species briefly, noticing varieties under them, and illustrat- 
ing each by examples. We shall also subjoin some additional observa- 
tions on this kind of construction, and on some of the words which are 
chiefly employed as connectives. 

§145. I. (1) The first species of Co-ordinate Construction which 
invites our attention is that which we may call Copulative Co-or- 
dination, or Simple Cojinection. (2) This is the most simple and 
the most frequently employed of all the forms of co-ordinate con- 
struction. It indicates less beyond simple connection in the same 
train of thought than any other species of co-ordinate construction, 
perhaps, sometimes nothing beyond this. Hence this comes to be 
used in all cases where there is nothing in the relation of proposi- 
tions to one another calling for the other forms of construction. All 
that is, in any case, imphed by this species of co-ordination, beyond 
mere conjunction, is that the connected propositions have the same 
relation to the general drift or bearing of the discourse. 

(3) The word chiefly employed to indicate this species of co-or- 

tions. (T) What are the connectives used for this purpose called ? From what words must 
they be distinguished, and how ? 

(8) What common purpose does this class of connectives serve? (9) Do they serve any 
other besides this common purpose ? (10) How many species of co-ordinate construction 
may be distinguished ? 

§ 145. (1) What name is given to the first species of co-ordinate construction ? (2) State 
the substance of what is said of tins kind of connection of propositions. 

(8) What is the word chiefly employed to indicate this species of connection ? (4) Men- 



§ 145.] SIMPLE CONNECTION. 461 

dination is and. This word is the grand copulative. (4) The ad- 
verbs also^ moreover^ too^ are sometimes employed with a copulative 
force, and the adverbial phrases, besides this, in addition to this, &c. 
[Eke may be regarded as obsolete.) And, however, is often em- 
ployed along with these, and when it is not, it is perhaps always 
implied. It may perhaps be admitted as the correct statement of 
fact, that when these adverbs or phrases are employed, the suppres- 
sion of and is more readily admitted. We shall say something more 
of these adverbial conjunctives after we have first treated and. 
(5) We subjoin an example or two of propositions connected by 

AND. 

"Length of days is in her right hand; and in her left hand are 
riches and honor." " Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her 
paths are peace." Here and connects simple grammatically independ- 
ent propositions. In the following example it unites two compound 
propositions. " She is a tree of life to them that lay hold of her ; and 
happy is every one that retaineth her." Again in the following it con- 
nects two accessory propositions, which in relation to one another are 
independent, or what we may call co-ordinate accessories. " When 
wisdom entereth into thine heart, and {when) knowledge is pleasant 
unto thy soul, discretion shall preserve thee," &c. We need not mul- 
tiply examples ; the form of construction is so very common and fami- 
liar. We can scarcely write a line without the employment of an and. 

(6) The word a7id may be considered as performing alone the func- 
tion of a proposition — perhaps, an imperative proposition. It is pretty 
generally agreed, even by those who differ most widely about the de- 
rivation of this word, that and means add, or something equivalent. 
(7) By substituting the imperative proposition add, or add to this, in 
the examples above adduced, the meaning will remain unchanged, 
though the junction will naturally appear more clumsy from the exclu- 
sion of the customary form of expression, and the introduction of an 
unusual one. Thus, "Length of days is in her right hand ;" add, or 
add to this, "in her left hand (are) riches and honor," (8) li and is 
thus recognised as an imperative, and equivalent to an imperative pro- 

tion some other stibsidiary words, and tell how they are used. (5) Give examples of the 
connection of simple independent propositions, of compound propositions, and of accessory 
propositions independently used to modify the same principal proposition. 

(6) What is said of the function which and performs, and of its original sense? (7) 
What word may be substituted for it, without destroying the sense ? Illustrate by exam- 
ples. (8) What results if and is recognised as an imperative? 



462 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 145 

position, the proposition which follows it becomes an objective acces- 
sory to it. Add to this "in her left hand'" = that "in her left hand" 
(ai^e) "riches and honor," will then be a cmnpound proposition^ and 
co-ordinate with the preceding simple proposition. 

(9) There is perhaps still another proposition implied in this hind 
of jnnctnre; for it indicates, agreeably to the usage of language, that 
the assertion which follows the connectire is simply additional or con- 
tinuative of the same train of thought in the same direction, not opposed 
to the preceding assertion, or expressing an exception to it. (10) 
From this it follows that and (and the remark applies to other con- 
junctions) serves as the abbreviated form of a proposition, or propo- 
sitions employed for the purpose of uniting other propositions, besides 
indicating that a certain relation exists between these connected pro- 
positions. 

(11) All this, however, may be overlooked in practical analysis. 
And may be called the simple Copulative Conjunction, and the propo- 
sitions between which it stands may be regarded as co-ordinate and 
connected by its means. 

(12) The words also, moreover, desides, desides this, in addition to 
this, &c., employed, sometimes with, and sometimes without and, in 
the junction of co-ordinate propositions continuative of the same train 
of thought, are to be regarded as performing their usual functions, but 
not in the proposition which follows them, and which they help to 
connect. If we thrust them upon this following proposition, Ave create 
confusion. They are to be regarded as complementary of (what we 
may be allowed to call) the conjunctional or connecting proposition. 
In other words, they modify the conjunction and, expressed or implied, 
or some other implied verb. Example : " Moreover, by them is thy 
servant warned." = Add or join moreover, or heyond this, or / say 
more leyond this, " by them," &c. If we bring moreover as a modifying 
adverb into the subjoined proposition we spoil the meaning. Also is 
perhaps rarely to be included in i\i& connective proposition ; but besides 
this, or lesides alone, with this implied, and in addition to this, are 
often a part of the junetu7'e. They are when alone equivalent to add, 
or, I say desides this; I say in addition to this, &c. In analysis, 
they may be treated when thus employed as copulative phrases or ex- 
pressions. 

(9) What more is implied in this bind of juncture of propositions ? (10) Eepeat the re- 
mark in referonce to a>"D iUid other co-ordinate conjunctions. 

(11) How may and be treated in analysis? 

(12) Eepeat the substance of what is said about the subsidiary words used with or with- 
out A>1). Illustrat* by esample. 



§ 145.] SIMPLE CONNECTION. 463 

(18) "We have already said that words are not always indispensably 
necessary to connect a train of propositions. In connecting periods^ 
or sentences^ consisting often of several co-ordinate propositions, and 
closing with a rest, or momentary suspension in the progress of the 
discourse, conjunctions are very generally dispensed with in our lan- 
guage. And co-ordinate propositions in the same period, when there 
is no danger of ambiguity or misapprehension arising from the sup- 
pression of connective words, are often placed together without the 
intervention of the copulative. We may give as an example, Caesar's 
celebrated dispatch, " Yeni, vidi, vici," / came^ I saw, I conquered. 
The suppression of the conjunction in such cases may be regarded rather 
as a rhetorical contrivance, than as an ordinary grammatical construc- 
tion. (14) But when more than two similar propositions follow each 
other in succession, it is customary to omit the copulative between all 
but the last proposition and that which precedes it. For example : 
'^ The hill appeared more steep, the fruits seemed harsh, their sight 
grew dim, and their feet tripped at every little obstruction." Here 
are four propositions all connected in co-ordinate construction, and 
the copulative employed only between the last two. This may be re- 
garded as the regular grammatical mode of connecting co-ordinate 
propositions, co-ordinate members of propositions, and co-ordinate 
complements of propositions. 

(15) Sometimes, for rhetorical effect, the copulative is placed be- 
tween each co-ordinate proposition, or co-ordinate member, &c., and 
that which is connected with it. We select an example from Dr. 
Chalmers, who seems to have had a strong partiality for this rhetorical 
contrivance. " We scarcely recognise them as men and women, who 
can rejoice and weep, and pine with disease, and taste the sufferings 
of mortality, and be oppressed with anguish, and love with tender- 
ness," &c. 

" Yapors and clouds and storms." — Thomson. 

(16) This repetition of the copulative is sometimes employed with 
good effect to cause the hearer's mind to dwell on each of a series of 
important propositions by retarding the enunciation. On the con- 
trary, the total omission of the conjunction indicates the rapid move- 



(13) Eepeat what is said of the occasional connection of propositions without conjunc- 
tions. ' 

(14) Tell when the suppression of conjunctions is customary, and illustrate by an example. 

(15) Eepeat what is said of the repetition of the copulative between each pair of co-ordi- 
nates. (16) What is the effect of this repetition ? And what the effect of the total sup- 
pression of the copulative ? 



464 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 145. 

ment of the mind from thought to thought, imitating, as in the exam- 
ple above, the rapidity Avith which the events expressed succeeded 
each other * 

(1*7) When the same assertion is to be made of two or more 
distinct subjects, for the sake of brevity and compactness of expres- 
sion we unite the subjects together by the copulative, and employ 
the verb only once for all the united subjects. For example, Wil- 
liam and James are industrious. (18) When two subjects are thus 
united they are sometimes preceded by the determinative both ; as, 
Both William and James are industrious. This unites the subjects 
more emphatically. Both is also sometimes employed in the same 
way before two united complements. It seems scarcely proper to 
place both in this way before more than two members, or comple- 
ments, since it implies duality. 

(19) It will be observed that in this construction the verb is in 
the plural form. We shall express this fact in one of the rules to 
be given at the end of this chapter. Propositions of this kind we 
may distinguish by the name of Plural Propositions. 

(20) When we employ the jsZwraZ form of a single noun as subject 
of a proposition, we have what may be regarded as one species of 
plural pro2^ositions ; for every proposition with a plural form for sub- 
ject noun has really two or more, sometimes innumerable subjects, 
but all of the same class of objects, and indicated by the same common 
name, or general term. 

(21) On the other hand, it often happens that two or more pre- 
dicates are asserted of a single subject. In this case, too, the verbs 
are connected by the copulative. Thus, " The leaves fade away, and 
leave the parent stem desolate,^'' = The leaves fade away, and the 



* The rhetoricians call the suppression of the copula the figure asynde- 
ton, = constmction without connectives ; and the introduction of it between 
all the propositions, members, <fec., when there are more than two, polysyn- 
deton, = constriiction with many connectives. 



(17) Eepeat what is said of the tmion of several subjects imcler the same assertion. Ex- 
ample. (18) What is said of the use of the word both in uniting two subjects ? Example. 

(19) What form of the verb is employed in such constructions ? 

(20) Repeat the remark about the plural form of nouns. 

(21) "What is said of the use of more than one predicate to the same subject ? Example. 



§ 145.] SIMPLE CONNECTION. 465 

leaves leave the parent stem desolate. (22) Sometimes several sub- 
jects are united with several predicates in the same construction. 
" In that season of the year, when the serenity of the sky, the vari- 
ous fruits which cover the ground, the discolored foliage of the 
trees, and all the sweet, but fading graces of inspiring autumn, open 
the mind to benevolence, and dispose it for contemplation," &c. 

(23) Lastly we give examples of the connection of simple modi- 
fications of the same class used to complete the same principal word. 
The dishonest and unfaithful steward has been dismissed. And 
here unites two Descriptive Adjective Modifications^ both affecting 
the noun steward. George studies grammar, geometry, and chem- 
istry. " And leaves the world to darkness, and to me." It is un- 
necessary to multiply examples of this kind, as they are to be found 
abundantly in every page we read.'^ 

(24) To recapitulate, we connect by the copulative and inde- 
pendent propositions, similar accessories modifying the same word 
independently of each other, subjects having a common predicate 
or common predicates, predicates having a common subject or sub- 
jects, and similar modifications completing the same word in simple 
propositions, when these propositions, members, modifications con- 



* Complements -whicli are not of the same class or kind are seldom united 
together in this manner, and, when they are so united, we believe they are 
always ungraceful. "We have an example of dissimilar complements con- 
nected by and in the following: "Hear now this, foolish people, and 
without understanding." Here we have a noun and preposition comple- 
ment connected in co-ordinate construction with a descriptive adjective modi- 
fication ; except we shall say that there is an ellipsis of the word people after 
*'and," This could have been avoided by translating the passage, people, 
foolish and void of understanding. This would be an equally close transla- 
tion of the original which is literally, foolish people, and no heart or no 
intelligence. It might be said that " without understanding " is equivalent 
in sense to an adjective modification. Admitted ; but we think that only 
complements of similar form can be gracefully united by the copulative. 
We would caution the student, if the caution should appear necessary, 
against the imitation of such forms of expression. 



(22) Illustrate the union of several subjects with several predicates by an example. 

(23) Adduce examples of co-ordinate complements connected by the copulative. 

(24) Eecapitulate what has been said on the use of the copulative. 

80 



466 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 145. 

cm- in carrying forward a train of thought uninterrupted by objec- 
tions or exceptions. 

(25) In analysis, when co-ordinate propositions, members, &c. 
occur, we must say that they are connected in simple copulative co- 
ordination by the conjunction and alone or modified by moreover^ 
besides, &c., as the case may be. When the copulative is omitted, 
the omission must be noticed and accounted for in the manner 
already stated. 

Punctuation {oi' rather Interpunotion) of Co-ordinates con- 
nected BY And. — (26) Between propositions, whether absolutely in- 
dependent or accessory, connected in co-ordinate construction, a com- 
ma is always placed, whether the copulative is employed or omitted. 

In regard of co-ordinate members of propositions, subjects or predi- 
cates, and in regard of co-ordinate modifications, the rule is somewhat 
different. "When there are only two members or modifications con- 
nected by and, no comma is employed. The copulative sufficiently 
indicates the construction. When no copulative is used, a comma 
must always be placed between co-ordinate members and co-ordinate 
modifications. So far all are agreed. But when more than two co-or- 
dinate members or modifications are connected, some place a comma 
between each member or modification and that which succeeds it, 
even between the last two, though connected by and. Others, in the 
connection of members and modifications, invariably omit the comma 
where the copulative is employed. This seems to us the simplest and 
the most consistent rule. Those who place a comma between all the 
co-ordinates, when there are three or more, in the case of connected 
subjects, place also a comma after the last before their common verb. 
Example : John, James, and Thomas, are good men. When only two 
subjects are united by and a comma is not placed after them by these 
authors , thus, John and James are good. The distinction established 
by those who adopt this mode of punctuation between the case of two 
and three or more subjects appears to us capricious. (27) If we dismiss 
this distinction, the rule for pointing this whole class of constructions 
is very simple; viz., place a comma ahoays between co-ordinate pro- 
positions ; and a comma between co-ordinate members and co-ordinate 



(25) Eepeat the directions given in reference to the analysis of copulative constractions. 

(26) Eepeat the substance of the remarks on the punctuation, or interpunction of co-oi-di- 
nates connected by and. (27) Eepeat the simp'est form of the rulo for the interpunction of 
this class of constructions, dismissing certain capricious distinctions. 



§ 146.] CO-ORDINATE USED FOR COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION. 467 

modifications whenever the copulative is omitted. When co-ordinate 
modifications are themselves attended with modifications, a comma is 
sometimes used in connection with the copulative. 

(28) There is a variety of this kind of construction in which the co- 
ordinate members are connected in pairs, and a comma placed between 
each pair. Example: "Interest and ambition, honor and shame, 
friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge(,) are the prime movers 
in public transactions." Here the last comma seems to us improper. 

Exercises I., IL, &c. — Furnish examples of co-ordinate propositions, 
members, &c. 

§ 146. (1) This is, perhaps, the proper place to make some remarks 
on the occasional employment of the co-ordinate form of construc- 
tion instead of a compound construction ; in other words, of a propo- 
sition independent in form and connected by the copulative^ yet, in 
use^ having the force of an accessory, and serving the purpose of an 
accessory. We have already adverted to this matter in the end of 
the section on accessories of time, and in treating of participial con- 
structions. {See §§ 129 : 9, and 148 : 16.) 

We shall notice only two distinct cases of this employment of the 
construction with the copulative. (2) The first is to serve instead of 
an accessory or an infinitive of purpose. We may give as examples, 
Will you not come, and dine with us ? Why does Tie not go^ and tell his 
father? Come and see us. He came yesterday and msited us. We 
shall go to-morrow., and see the exhibition. These are equivalent to 
Will you not come to dine with us f or, Will you not come ihat you 
may dine with us^ &c. The coming is for the purpose of dining f 
the going for the purpose of telling., &c. (8) Such forms of expression 
are colloquial, perhaps they might be called vulgar. They are more 
commonly employed in the interrogative and imperative, than in the 
assertive form of propositions. We suspect that they are used impera- 
tively and interrogatively in the colloquial intercourse even of good 
and well-educated society, still they lack precision and elegance. Ex- 
amples may be found in our standard authors ; but few educated men 
of the present day would be willing to introduce such forms in any 
kind of dignified discourse. We give an example from Shakspeare : 



(28) Describe a variety of this kind of construction, and the mode of interpunction, 
illustrating by an example. 

§ 146. (1) Tell what is said of the use of co-ordinate instead of compound construction. 

(2) Describe the first case of this use, illustrating by examples. (8) Eepeat the substance 
of the remarks on this use; give example from Shakspeare. 



468 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 146. 

" Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed, 
And batten on this moor ?" 

c= That you might hatten^ or to Itatten on this moor. 

(4) In this case it is the last of the two connected propositions that 
serves the purpose of an accessory. 

(5) The second case of the employment of co-ordinate for com- 
pound construction is that in which one of the two connected propo- 
sitions — always, we believe, the first one — serves instead of an accessory 
of time, or instead of the participial construction which serves the 
same purpose. (6) This employment of the co-ordinate form of con- 
struction is sanctioned by far more general and more respectable usage. 
It may be regarded as a settled idiom of our language. We use this 
kind of construction very generally, when, in the ancient languages, 
a participial construction is employed. (7) Let us illustrate this usage 
by a few examples. '^ He opened his mouth, and taught them." The 
original expresses what is contained in the first of these propositions 
by a participial construction — a participle modifying the subject noun 
of the second proposition. The literal translation is. Having opened 
Ms mouth, or, perhaps, rather. Opening his mouth, he taught them. 
The latter form expresses the intended connection of the thought 
more exactly than the authorized version. But the translation, as it 
stands, is more consonant to the English idiom, especially to the idiom 
of the period when the translation was made, before the complicated, 
exotic constructions fashionable in the times of the Commonwealth 
were forced upon our language. Even to this day, it is less stiff than 
the Participial form of expression. "We have similar examples in the 
following passages : " The same day went Jesus out of the house, and 
sat by the sea side" = The same day Jesus, having come out of the 
house, sat, &c. or, with fuU construction, The same day, tohen Jesus 
had come out of the house, he sat, &c. " He came to the first, and 
said." (Greek, Saving come, or coming to the first, he said.) " And he 
answered, and said." " And he came to the second, and said," &c. 
In all these cases a participial construction is employed in the 
original Greek. {See Acts 18 : 1, 2, and the Xew Testament, pas- 
sim.) (a) 

(8) In the following example from Shakspeare the latter of two 



(4) Which proposition in this case serves the purpose of an accessory ? 

(5) Describe the second case of this employment of co-ordinate construction. (6) Eepeat 
the remarks made on this use. (7) Illustrate by examples. 

'8) Eepeat what Ls said of the example from Shakspeare. 



§ 146.] CO-ORDINATE FOR COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION. 469 

propositions in the co-ordinate form of construction is equivalent to a 
conditional or concessive accessory. 

" Can one be pardoned, and retain the offence?" 
Here the conjunctive words, tTiough or if or whilst^ would, perhaps, 
more precisely indicate the relation between the two propositions. It 
would be still more explicit^ though awlcioard and Jiat beside the ori- 
ginal, to say, May one who retains the offence he pardoned ? 

(9) In all cases two propositions connected by and may be consi- 
dered, as regards form of language, co-ordinate or independent. Their 
true relation, as regards sense in such exceptional cases as we have 
presented above, is to be ascertained from the nature of the thought. 
This relation is indicated by no distinct grammatical contrivance, ex- 
cept we consider juxtaposition in this light. 

N'oTK (a) — ^We may be allowed to observe, in connection with this subject, 
that the translator of the Book of Acts has improperly introduced the copu- 
lative in a great number of passages where the employment of it cannot be 
justified by a reference to idiomatic usage, and when it injures or perverts, 
to a certain degree, the sense of the original. We refer to Acts 1:16; 2 : 29, 
8*7, and 13 : 15, &c., in which we find the expression, "Men and brethren." 
The translator has indeed in all these examples placed and in italics, indi- 
cating that it is not in the original. But this does not help the reader to 
ascertain the exact sense of the original. The word " brethren " is in the 
original a noun in apposition in all these passages. The English reader 
would never find this out from the present translation, even with the help 
of the italics, because men brethren is not a usual form of apposition in our 
language. "With the Greeks it was. They employed currently such ex- 
pressions as men soldiers, men Romans, men Athenians, (fee, in which the 
latter noun serves to designate the employment, the nation, (fee, of the men. 
These expressions we uniformly translate soldiers, Romans, Greeks, (fee, sup- 
pressing the word men, in accommodation to the English idiom. The trans- 
lator ought to have done the same in the passages above referred to, and in 
several others, which the reader can readily find by the help of a concord- 
ance. In Acts 7 : 2 and 22 : 1, we find the expression " Men, brethren, and 
fathers," making the hearers addressed in these passages by Stephen and 
the Apostle Paul to consist of three distinct classes, viz., men, brethren, and 
fathers — a very illogical division ; but it is the division of the translator, 
not of Stephen or the Apostle Paul. The expression rendered into correct 
idiomatic English is, simply, Brethren and Fathers. Wiclif renders these 
passages correctly, "Britheren and fadris," and Acts 1 : 16 and 2 : 29, 37, (fee, 



(9) Eepeat the remark in reference to the manner in which we may always regard pro- 
positions connected by and. 



470 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 147. 

" Britheren." Tliis makes it appear the more strange that the translators 
in the authorized version, and the translators of the 16th century, Tjndale, 
Cranmer, (fee., should have overlooked the Greek idiom to which we have 
referred. 

§ 147. II. Adversative or Exceptrt] Cokxection. — (1) 
The form of expression, " John arrived in the morning, and went 
away at noon," is that which we would employ, if it were our pur- 
pose to give another person simply an account of John's move- 
ments. But suppose a friend calls at our house expecting to meet 
John, and tells us that he has come, because he heard that John 
arrived this morning, we would naturally say in reply, " John ar- 
rived indeed this morning, but he went away at noon." Here we 
are not to give simply an account of John's movements, but to in- 
form our friend why he does not find John at our house, though he 
did arrive in the morning. That he arrived is in favor of our friend's 
purpose, but that he went away is adverse to it. This opposition 
of the added assertion, in reference to the purpose in view, is indi- 
cated by the connective or conjunction but. 

(2) And and but agree, then, in so far, that they both indicate 
a connection between propositions ; but they differ in this, that 
a7id connects j^ropositions expressing consentaneous assertions concur- 
ring to the same purpose, hut, on the contrary, connects propositions 
expressing assertions opposed in reference to their bearing on the 
point under discussion. (3) We might perhaps say more simply, 
but serves the purpose which and serves ; namely, to connect pro- 
positions, &c. ; and, besides, serves a purpose which and cannot 
serve ; namely, to indicate some contrariety in the propositions con- 
nected. We may consider and as by way of pre-eminence the 
simple connective, and but as the adversative (sometimes the excep- 
tive) connective. (4) We shall call the connection effected by hut 
adveo^sative (and sometimes exceptive) connection. 

(5) The most marked case of adversative connection is that in 
which but is employed between an affirmative and a negative propo- 



§ 147. (1) Repeat the illustration of the distinction between the connection effected by 
AND and by but. 

(2) State the distinction between the uses of but and ajsd. (8) State it more simply. 
(4) "What name is given to the connection effected by but ? 



§ 147.] ADVERSATIVE AND EXCEPTIVE CONNECTION. 4*71 

sition ; thus, Your father will go to the exhibition to-WjOrrow^ but he 
will not take you with him. (6) That but is used in such cases is not 
attributable to the change from affirmative to negative, but to the fact 
that such change very generally arises from some change or variation 
in the train of thought. A negative proposition is not necessarily 
connected with an affirmative one by 5w^, and but is very often em- 
ployed to connect two affirmative, and, perhaps, sometimes two nega- 
tive propositions. Examples: "Fear thou the Lord and the king; 
audi meddle not with them that are given to change." " Righteousness 
exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people." 

(7) But is sometimes employed like and.^ though less frequently 
than a?icZ, in connecting members of propositions and complementary 
words, especially when such words represent a proposition. Exam- 
ples : Not John., but James is wrong. "I shall not die, but live," 
&c. Johii has learnt all his lessons but one. " None of them is lost, 
BUT the son of perdition " = John has learnt all his lessons., but one 
he has not learnt ; and, " None of them is lost, but the son of perdi- 
tion " is lost. (8) But in such cases expresses an exception, and may 
generally be represented by the imperative except. Thus, John has 
learnt all his lessoos, except one. 

Note. — This is perhaps a use to which but was applied, before it came to 
be used merely as an adversative — the manner in which it is now most com- 
monly employed. But, at least the but thus used, is supposed to have been 
oi-iginally an imperative or participle in the Anglo-Saxon language, signify- 
ing be out, except, save, or being out, excepting, saving. We regard the use 
of this word first mentioned above, viz., to indicate the addition of a propo- 
sition in a lesser or greater degree opposed to the previous current of 
thought, as a secondary use to be traced perhaps to tlie eflfect of insensible 
extension. The opposition expressed by but in the present use of the lan- 
guage, is in many cases so slight that and may be substituted for it without 
much change of sense. If, indeed, there is no opposition whatever, no va- 
riation of the train of thought, but cannot with propriety be used. When 
there is but a trifling variation of the thought we may use but to indicate 
such variation, or we may employ the simple copulative and, leaving the 
hearer or reader to detect and appreciate for himself the opposition be- 
tween the propositions. If, on the contrary, we think the opposition worthy 
to be marked, we must do it by the employment of but. 

(5) Mention the most marked case of adversative connection. (6) Eepeat the I'emark 
about the connection between the change from aflBrmative to negative assertion, and the 
employment of adversative construction. Illustrate by examples. 

(7) What is said of the use of but to connect members of propositions and complemen- 
tary words ? Illustrate by examples. 

(8) What does but in etich cases express ? How may it be represented ? ExamijJB 9 



472 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 14*7. 

If we look into versions made by different translators from the same 
passage in a foreign tongue, we shall find that, when the opposition be- 
tween two co-ordinate propositions is slight, one translator will employ 
and, another hut as the connective word. For example, turning, in Bag- 
sters Hexapla, to Luke 21 : 9, we find in the authorized version "But 
when ye shall hear of wars," cfec. ; inWiclif, "AxDwhanne ge schulen here," 
&e. ; in Tyndale and Cranmer, " But," (fee, and in the versions of Geneva 
and Rheims "And," (fee. On the contrary, these all agree in using but in 
the commencement of the 'twelfth verse of the same chapter, perhaps, be- 
cause there is, if not a more marked opposition, at least a more marked tran- 
sition of thought. It is to be observed that in the original Greek, the con- 
junction employed in both passages is the same, a conjunction performing 
without discrimination the functions of both and and but, (that is, hut in the 
first-mentioned sense as a weaker adversative, but not hut when decidedly ex- 
ceptive,) and which Greek conjunction (5e) we translate by one or other of 
these words, according as the sense of the author, and the genius of our own 
language demand. 

(9) We must not forget a very peculiar use of the conjunction tut^ 
in which it is nearly equivalent to the adverb only. Examples : " Our 
light affliction, which is but for a moment." " If I may touch but 
his clothes." " "We shall but die." These are nearly equivalent to 
" which is oxLT for a moment." " If I may touch only his clothes," 
" We shall only die," no more. This use of hut is apparently of more 
recent origin than either of the two already mentioned. (10) In pro- 
positions of the above form, the negative, it is supposed, was anciently 
employed ; and this use of &wf, so unlike, as it now seems, to the two 
above mentioned, is thought to have arisen from the habitual suppres- 
sion of the negative in such expressions. If we insert the negative in 
the examples above given, hut will have the force which it has in the 
second mentioned, and now less prevalent, though, we believe, older 
use (viz., the excep)tive) and the sense will remain unchanged. Thus, 
" Our light affliction, which is" not " but for a moment." " If I may" 
not " but touch his clothes." '•'" We shall" not "but die." When the 
not is inserted hut., as in what we have called the older usage, can take 
except or m'ce for its substitute. Thus, " Our light affliction, which is" 
not, except or save " for a moment," &c.* 



* When not was employed in such expressions as the above, it would 
naturally receive very little force in pronunciation : thus, which isn't but 
for a moment. This fact may perhaps help to account for the gradual sup- 

(9) Describe a peculiar use of hut, and illustrate by examples. (10) Eepeat what is said 
in reference to a supposed suppression in such cases. Illustrate by examples. 



§ 147.] ADVERSATIVE AND EXCEPTIVE CONNECTION. 4*73 

(11) As in the case of simple connection by the copulative, so in 
the case of adversative connection certain other words besides lut are 
sometimes employed in company with it, as subsidiary to it, and often 
where tut is suppressed, to express more emphatically the adversative 
nature of the connection. We notice among these the expressions, 
On the contrary^ on the other hand^ &c. But is also sometimes fol- 
lowed, like and^ by the word besides, or besides this, in addition to this, 
&c. Examples : Many thinlc this man a patriot, on the contrary, or 
BUT ON THE CONTRARY, we tMnJc Mm a mere time-serving, selfish poli- 
tician. This man is industrious and enterprising, on the other hand, 
or BUT on the OTHER HAND, he is Very extravagant. This lady is very 
beautiful, but besides this, or but in addition to this, she is very 
haughty. As we remarked in treating of simple connection, it is, per- 
haps, most proper — most correct — to treat all such words as forming 
part of the connecting or conjunctive proposition ; as modifications, if 
we please, of but (which may be regarded as implied when not ex- 
pressed), or of some other suppressed verb —such verbs as add, join, 
say, &c., as I add, say, &c., or but I add, or say on the other hand, &o. 
This will save us from thrusting them as modifications on the follow- 
ing proposition, in which they will often appear misplaced and un- 
meaning.* 



pression of the negative. {See more on this use of but in Additional Ob- 
servations, § 150.) 

* It may be remarked that the proposition joined to another by hut ex- 
ceptive (and consequently that joined by hut = only) stands often more in 
the relation of a subordinate than of a co-ordinate proposition. It may some- 
times be regai'ded as an accessory proposition, designed to modify that to 
which it is attached by expressing a necessary exception, rather than as an 
independent proposition. In fact it serves often nearly the same purpose as 
the exceptive accessory already considered. 

Propositions in adversative construction, are more generally strictly co- 
ordinate. This is proved by the fact that in such propositions we can some- 
times substitute the copulative and for the adversative but without material 
change of the sense. But, as we have seen, even and, the great connective 
of co-ordinate propositions, is sometimes employed to join propositions which 
in sense are really accessory or modifying ; and but adversative (as well as 
BUT exceptive) is perhaps much oftener employed in the same way. Yet both 
AND and BUT are chiefly used to connect propositions essentially independent 
in sense, as well as in form. The real criterion of the independence of pro- 

(11) Enumerate other subsidiary words employed m adversative construction. Kepeat 
the remarks on their uses, and illustrate by examples. 



474 . STRUCTURE OP LANGUAGE. [§14*7. 

(12) In the analysis the manner of procedure is the same as in the 
case of simple connection. The nature of the connection must be 
stated, whether adversative or exceptive^ distinguishing these from each 
other, and adverting to the explanation given of the use of hut^^only^ 
when this word occurs in this peculiar use. 

(13) As to the punctuation, when Si^^ joins complete propositions, 
a comma is always inserted before hut. (14) "When other adversative 
words, as on the other hand.^ &c., are inserted, for the more full expres- 
sion of adversative connection, we place a comma also after the whole 
connective phrase, separating it fi-om both the propositions connected. 
Besides this, it is most usual, we think, to place a comma between hut 
and the accompanying words, when both hut and an adversative 
phrase are used. This is proper, if we suppose a verb suppressed, 
and. that the connective is really made up of two contracted proposi- 
tions. Thus, hut on the otJier hand may be considered equivalent to 
he out or except this^ that I add or say on the other hand. (15) When 
BUT exceptive is employed to connect a single word serving as a mem- 
ber or complement of an incompletely expressed proposition, it is not 
generally preceded by a comma, except when the connected word 
draws lengthened accompaniments after it. Thus, in the assertion, 
John has learnt all his lessons hut one., a comma is not generally in- 
serted before hut. In " jSTone of them is lost, hut the son of perdition ;" 
and " IsTeither was I taught it, hut by the revelation of Jesus Christ," 
the comma is inserted. But in this matter usage is not consistent. 
Perhaps the comma should in all these cases be inserted. Before but 
for only the comma is not employed, as may be seen in the examples 
given already. When hut adversative is separated from the proposi- 
tion which it really connects by another proposition, or an adverbial 
phrase which requires interpunction, such proposition or phrase, of 
course, is separated from hut and its proposition by commas. 



positions is the ^ense of the discourse, not invariably the form of the ex- 
pression, or, in other words, the conjiTnction which is employed to connect 
them. The relation of propositions to one another is not always precisely 
indicated by the constrnction of discourse. It is not always necessary that 
their relation should be so indicated, because it is often rendered suffi- 
ciently clear by the train of thought. Neither and nor but can be regarded 
as ever used for the express purpose of indicating subordination. 

(12) What is said of the mode of analysis ? 

(13) What is the punctuation when f)2it separates complete propositions ? (14) What 
when other adversative words are introduced? (15) What when iut exceptive is employed 
to connect a single word ? Illustrate by examples. 



§ 148.] ALTERNATIVE CONNECTION. 475 

Exercises I., II., &c. — Furnish examples of propositions connected 
adversatively by hut and other adversative phrases. 

Examples of Exceptive Connection. Examples of but=onIy. 

§ 148. III. Alternative Connection. — (1) In discourse we 
often find occasion to introduce two distinct, independent propositions, 
with the intention of asserting one or the other, but not both. In 
many cases, we may not know which is to be asserted as true, 
while we are assured that one of them must be true : in other cases, 
we may not wish to express decisively which we think true, though 
we have perhaps formed a decided opinion. We therefore submit 
to the party addressed a choice between two or more alternatives, 
expressed by two or more independent propositions. (2) The word 
chiefly employed as a connective for this purpose is or. (3) As this 
word serves to conjoin alternative assertions, we may call it the 
Alternative Connective^ or the Alternative Conjunction. 

We may illustrate this form of construction (of discourse) by the 
following examples. (4) These men will govern their passions^ or 
their passions loill soon govern them. He loill act honorably in this 
matter^ or / shall he greatly disapijointed. (5) In such forms of ex- 
pression an alternative is proposed ; neither both propositions, nor one 
or other by itself is asserted absolutely, but some one of the two. If 
the first is admitted, the last is abandoned ; and, if the first is aban- 
doned, the last is admitted. If it is true, that the men will govern their 
passions^ then I abandon the assertion that their passions will govern 
them ; but if it is not true that they will govern their passions^ it is 
positively asserted that their passions will govern them.* 

* It will be noticed that there is some kind of analogy between alterna- 
tive propositions and conditional propositions. "We can sometimes substitute 
the alternative form of construction for the conditional ; or, in other words, 
we can express the same thought by the conditional and by the alternative 
form. In the one case we use negative, in the other affirmative proposi- 
tions. Example : If the hoy does not study, I shall certainly not countenance 
his negligence. The boy will study, or 1 will not countenance, <fec. The al- 
ternative is a softened and weaker form (a hope is indicated in the example, 
that the boy will study) ; and here, as perhaps in all cases of the use of co- 

% 14S. (1) State the circumstances under which alternative construction is resorted to. 
(2) What word is used chiefly as connective? (3) How do we name it? (4) Give exam- 
ples of this construction. (5) Illustrate with reference to the examples. 

(6) What frequently happens in alternative construction? Gi •■ e examples of common 



476 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 148. 

(6) It happens most frequently that assertions connected alterna- 
tively have either a comimon fredicate^ or have a common subject. Thus, 
with common predicates, we have propositions of this form, William 
OE Robert loill accompany us=^ William will accompany us, or .Robert 
will accompany us. With common subjects, of this form. Riches may 
become a blessing or prove a curse to their possessors. Sometimes also 
OR is used to connect alternative complements ; thus, / see a cloud or 
a mountain dimly in the distant horizon. Such expressions can gene- 
rally be readily resolved into two separate and complete propositions 
connected by the alternative conjunction. (7) But they cannot in all 
cases be so resolved. For example. Riches become a blessing or a curse 
to their possessors, according to the use which they make of them, can- 
not, without a change of the modifications of the predicate, be re- 
solved into separate complete propositions. (8) The grammarians, we 
think, may safely admit that all co-ordinate conjunctions may be used 
to connect co-ordinate propositions, co-ordinate subjects, and predicates 
of propositions and co-ordinate complements. See more of this in the 
additional observations on the co-ordinate conjunctions. 

(9) There is another distinct use of the conjunction or, in which it 
is always placed between words and not between propositions, and 
performs a function which has exclusive reference to words. In this 
use it indicates what we may call verbal alternation, or the proposal 
of a choice of terms or signs of the same conception, not a choice of 
assertions or of conceptions. (10) Thus we say Alexander, or Paris, 
referring to the Trojan prince known by both names. Logic, or the 
art of reasoning. (11) Here or plainly connects words, and these 
mere words, not words expressive of separate and distinct concep- 
tions, but alternative names for the same conception. This use of or 
is so distinct from the preceding that some languages (Latin for ex- 
ample) have a word or sign for this peculiar purpose, altogether dif- 
ferent from that employed to perform the first mentioned and more 
general function of or. 



ordinate for accessory construction, the former effects indirectly, by the aid 
of inference, that which the modifying construction effects directly and indi- 
cates explicitly. 



preHcate^s, &c. (7) Can such constructions be always resolved into separate propositions ? 
(8) What may grammarians safely admit in reference to the connection of co-ordinates ? 

(9) Describe a distinct use of the conjunction or. (10) Illustrate by examples. (11) 
What does or plainly connect in this case ? What is said of the equivalent for or thus em- 
ployed in other lan^ua^es ? 



§ 148.] ALTERNATIVE CONNECTION. All 

(12) When we wish to express alternation, or propose a choice of 
assertioiis with greater emphasw, we employ the word either before 
the propositions, besides using or to connect them. Thus, Either 
John OR William is mistaken. (13) Some call either, when thus em- 
ployed, a conjunction ; but it is here, as elsewhere, a determinative 
word, meaning one of two, and serves a purpose similar to that which 
BOTH serves before co-ordinate propositions, members of propositions, 
&c,, connected by and. The expression in the above example is 
equivalent to, One of two things is asserted^ John is mistahen^ or 
William is mistaJcen. 

(14) If what we believe to be the proper sense of either were 
strictly attended to, it should be used only when a choice of two co- 
ordinates is proposed ; but the use of this word has been insensihly 
extended to cases where there are more than two alternatives pro- 
posed.* Thus, " Either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a 
journey," &c. 

(15) The word else is sometimes employed with or^ sometimes 
without or for the purpose of connecting alternatives. Thus, Williami 
must go with us^ else I will not go = or / loill not go. 

(16) The word otherwise is also employed in the same way to con- 
nect alternatives. Example : We must govern our passions, otherwise 
we shall decome the icorst of slaves. This is a more emphatic, but also 
a more stiff manner of indicating alternation. Or might be used before 
otherwise, and consequently both else and otherwise may be regarded 
as modifications of (?r, just as we may regard besides, on the contrary^ 
&c., as modifications of and and hut. 

(17) In like manner the phrase, in other words., is used, sometimes 
alone, sometimes preceded by or to indicate alternation between two 
modes of expressing the same assertion, in the same mjfnner as or is 
employed to indicate alternation of single terms or signs. This may 



* The word alternative also means properly one of two, and in strictness 
ought not to be extended to a greater number ; but we have ventm-ed to 
depart, for the sake of convenience, from the strict usage. 



(12) What word is iised where alternation is to be expressed with emphasis ? Exam- 
ple? (18) What do some call EITHER when thus employed ? State objection. 

(14) What is said of the stilct iise of either ? Give example of its use when there are 
more than two co-ordinates. 

(15) What IS said of the use of the word else in connecting alternatives ? Example ? 

(16) "What of otherwise ? Example ? Is or used with otherwise ? 

(17) Eepeat what Is said of the use of the phrase, in otlior %oords. Example ? 



478 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 148. 

species in which there is a choice presented of different modes of ex- 
prebsing the same assertion^ or a choice of equivalent propositions. Ex- 
ample : That man lias succeeded in the worlds oe, in other words, he 
has made a fortune ; or simply, in other words, he has made a for- 
tune. 

(18) Or may be regarded as the great sign of the alternative com- 
bination of propositions, members of propositions and complements. 
The other forms of expression are only subsidiary. 

(19) Or has a negative form nor, and either a negative form 
NEITHER. AYe must make a remark or two on the use of these nega- 
tive forms. 

(20) Nor is sometimes employed as a connective when we couple 
one negative proposition to another. In this case it is equivalent to 
AND NOT. Thus, John is NOT at home., nor is his brother = John is 
not at home^ and his brother is not at home. That man has not got 
money., nor has he got credit. In such constructions it will be observed 
that we place the subject after the verb. The poets do not restrict 
themselves to this mode of arrrangement. 

" "What though his bowl 
Flames not with costly juice ; nor sunk in beds, 
Oft of gay care, he tosses out the night,',' &c. 

(21) Neither is sometimes used in the same way. " They toil not, 
neither do they spin," &c. 

(22) The more common and emphatic way of connecting two' or 
more members of propositions or complements, in negative alterna- 
tion., is to place neither before the first, and nor before the second, 
third, &c., if there are more than two. Examples : Neither John nob 
his brother is*at home. That loy neither reads nor writes. " Give 
me neither poverty nor riches." " I am persuaded that neith^er deatb, 
nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, &c., shall be able to 
separate us from the love of God." 

(23) It wiU be observed that nor and neither nor express the 

negation of that which or and either or indicate ; that is, they 

exclude an alternative. 



(IS) How may or be regarded? How other forms employed in expressing alternation ? 

(19) What are the negative forms of ok and either ? 

(20) How is NOE sometimes employed? Examples? What is remarked about the 
an*angement? What is said of the poets ? Example? (21) What is said of neithkr? 

(22) What is the more common and emphatic mode of connecting menibera of proposi- 
tions and complements in negative alternation ? Illustrate by an example. 

(23) What observation is made in reference to nor and neither — nor ? 



§ 148.] ALTERNATIVE CONNECTION. 4*79 

(24) Observations on the poetical use of oe and noe. — The poets often 
employ oe instead of eithee, and noe instead of neithee before the 
first of two alternative propositions.* Oe is most frequently found 
employed instead of eithee, and noe instead of neithee in connecting 
complements. Examples : 

" Whose greater power 
Oe bids you roar, oe bids your roaring cease." 
" Oe other worlds they seemed, oe happy isles." 
" Oe floating loose, oe stiff with mazy gold." 
In prose this would be expressed thus, Eithee dids you roar', oe, &c. 
Eithee otJiei' worlds they seemed, oe happy isles. Eithee floating 
loose, oe stifl', &c. 

" Noe wife, noe children more shall he behold, 
Noe friends, nor sacred home." 
In prose this would be expressed thus, Neithee wife, noe children, 
&c. 

(25) In the poets noe for and riot, not only often follows an aj^r- 
mative proposition, but commences a new sentence or section. 

" Noe less the palm of peace inwreathes thy brow." 
" Noe art thou skilled in awful schemes alone." 

" Noe purpose gay, 
Amusement, dance, or song, he sternly scorns." 
" Noe less at hand the loosened tempest reigns." 

In all these examples noe commences a new sentence, as well as 
follows affirmative propositions. 

" Eor who H^ H^ :ji H^ H^ Hi 

Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, 
Noe cast one longing, lingering look behind ?" 



* This may perhaps be regarded as an imitation of the Latin usage. 
This language expresses emphatic alternative connection, by employing the 
same alternative conjunction before both propositions, or members of propo- 
sitions or complements. "We may remark that it also expresses emphatic 
simple connection or combination, by a similar repetition of the copulative. 
Thus, in Latin Vel — vel = Either — or, Nee — nee = Neither — oior, Et — et 
= Both — and. 



(24) Mention a usage of ok and nob peculiar to the poets. Give examples. 

(25) Describe a poetical use of nor, and illustrate by examples. 



480 STRUCTURE OF LANaUAGE. [§ 148. 

Milton has employed noe as equivalent to not einen : 
"For Heaven hides nothing from thy view, 
Noe the deep tract of Hell." 

(26) The same mode of punctuation is adopted generally in alter- 
natwe connection of discourse as in simple connection. Propositions 
completely expressed are separated by a comma. "When members 
of propositions or complements take oe or noe between them the 
comma is generally omitted ; though in this matter usage is far from 
uniform, as will be seen in some of the examples above in which 
we have followed the punctuation of the copies from which we 
have quoted. , "When several co-ordinate complements or members of 
propositions are connected and the conjunction suppressed, a comma 
is always inserted. When alternative names are connected by or, the 
comma is usually interposed, as, Alexander^ or Paris. 

ExEEOisES I., II., &c. — Farnish examples of propositions connected 
by OE and by either — oe ; of the members of propositions — sub- 
jects and predicates so connected ; and of complements so connected. 

(27) Yet appears to be sometimes employed in connecting co-or- 
dinate propositions either alone or in connection with and^ dut, nor^ 
&c. We believe, that, generally, in such cases it indicates the suppres- 
sion of a concessive proposition. (See § 138 : 5.) For example, "I have 
smitten thee with blasting and mildew, &c., yet have ye not returned 
unto me" = J.?icZ though / have done tJiis, ye have not returned unto me. 

A similar remark might, perhaps, be made in reference to the word 
stilly when it apparently serves as the connective of co-ordinates. 
But most generally this latter when placed thus between co-ordinates 
modifies some word in the latter proposition. 

(28) There are certain forms of expression employed to introduce 
explanatory matter, such as to wit, videlicet, usually expressed in 
writing by the contraction viz.; and namely. These may all be re- 
garded as a species of conju7ictive contracted propositions. In analysis 
they may be designated conjunctive phrases used to introduce an ex- 
planation or enumeration of particulars. They are equivalent to such 
propositions as the following; I state particulars to help you to Icnow^ 
or that you may see for yourself I give you names., or the names are., 
or l)y name they are., or the like. To these we may add et ccetera^ 
commonly written, &c., wliich indicates the connection or addition 
of unnamed particulars similar to those just enumerated. 



(26) Tell what is said of the interpunction of alternatives. 

(27) What is said of the use of yet in connecting co-ordinate propositions? 
(23) What is said of to wit, videlicet, namely, and &c. ? 



§ 149.] CONNECTION OF PROPOSITIONS. RULES OF CONCORD. 481 

§149. (1) We have already, in treating of simple propositions, 
given the rule of agreement, or of concord^ as the grammarians call it, 
between verbs and subject nouns of the singular and plural forms and 
of different persons ; namely that the verb and subject must be of the 
same number and person. (2) Some further rules of concord become 
necessary in certain cases of combined construction, when two or more 
subject nouns having common predicates are, for the sake of abbrevia- 
tion, connected by conjunctions and the predicate expressed once for 
them all together. (3) When two or more subjects are embraced in 
this manner under one common predicate, they are generally such as 
are connected by the copulative and or the alternatives or or nor. 
(4) In rare cases, indeed, but is employed between two subjects, but 
then the verb manifestly applies only to the last subject, and is sup- 
pressed after the first. The same rule may be given for such cases of 
adversative construction as for alternative construction. The facts, so 
far as regards the form of the verb agree, though we should rather, in 
the cases of adversative connection, explain the construction, as we 
have just said, by saying that there is a suppression or ellipsis of the 
verb after the first subject. The following example will serve as a 
model of the kind of construction which we mean ; Not interest^ but 
duty HAS determined Ms choice. 

Leaving out these rare cases of adversative construction to be 
treated as cases of the ellipsis or suppression of a verb, or, if the read- 
er chooses, to be brought under the rule for alternative subjects, we 
proceed to lay down rules applying to the case of subjects united by 
the copulative' and of subjects united by the alternative conjunc- 
tion. (5) The subjects may be all singular, or second, they 
may be all plural, or third, they may be some singular, and some 
plural. (6) Omitting the case when all the subjects are plural, 
because this manifestly comes under Eule I., given in reference to the 
agreement of verbs and subjects in simple propositions, we have only 
to do with the cases where all the subjects are singular, or some sin- 
gular and some plural. (7) These cases need not be considered dis- 
tinctly in giving a rule for subjects connected by the copulative, as it 

§ 149. (1) Repeat the reference to a rule of concord already given. (2) In reference to 
■what cases do farther rnles become necessary ? (3) How are several subjects embraced un- 
der one assertion usually connected ? (4) T(jll what is said of constructions with hut em- 
ployed between two subjects. Give an example. 

(5) Enumerate three distinct cases of the combination of subjects. (6) Which of these 
cases may be left out of consideration, and why ? (7) Is it necessary to consider these cases 
distinctly in giving a rule for the concord of verbs with subjects connected by the copula- 
tive ? Give a reason. 

31 



482 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 149. 

makes no difference whether these subjects are all singular, or partly 
singular, partly plural. Two subjects, though both singular, when 
coupled together and both embraced under the same assertion, form 
a plural and require a plural verb. This fact may be expressed thus 
as a rule of concord. 

Rule IV. — (8) When an assertion is made by a single verb in 
reference to two or more subjects conjointly, the plural form of the 
verb is employed ; as, Integrity and industry deserve success. 
Pride and looveriy are ill assorted comioanions. (a) 

This rule of course applies whether thQ copulative is employed or 
suppressed. Example of suppression : 

" Love, wonder, joy alternately alarmy 

(9) TVe need not give a rule in English for the case in which sub- 
jects connected by the copulative are of different persons, since the 
plural form of aU our verbs is always the same for all three per- 
sons. (5) 

Exercises I., II., &;c. — The learner will furnish examples of propo- 
sitions having a plm'ality of subjects in simple connection. 

IS'oTE {a). — It is only when the assertion is made of the singular subjects 
conjointly that this rule applies. There are eases in which a>'D (as well as 
but) is employed between two subjects, and yet the assertion does not apply 
to both but only to one of the subjects. Thus, Jolm, jcsT) not James, is to 
hlame. 

Sometimes two nouns connected by the copulative, express but one single 
subject, in which case the verb is of the singular number ; as, This great 
philosopher and good man lives in poverty. 

Similar to this is the case when an author employs two nouns of kindred 
meaning, to express more fully a single conception ; as, " Their safety and 
welfare is most concerned." 

Some wilters seem to have imitated the Latin and Greek authors, who 
often make the verb accord in number and person with the last subject, and 
leave it to be supplied with the others. We do not condemn this practice 
as inconsistent with any general fixed principle or law of language. If it 
were a usage universally adopted in such cases, to make the verb, when 
there are two or more subjects, agree invariably with the last, and leave it 
to the party addressed to supply it in its proper form with the rest, the 
grammarian would have no reason to object. But general good usage does 
not in our language sanction this mode of expression. The employment of 
the plural form of the verb, in all cases where the assertion embraces two 

(8) Repeat Rtle IY. 

(9) Why is no rule necessary when the subjects are of different persons ? 



§ 149.] CONNECTION OF PROPOSITIONS. RULES OF CONCORD. 483 

distinct subjects, is so completely established that every tyro in grammar ia 
ready to detect and condemn as blunders all aberrations from this fixed 
usage. We recommend in such cases conformity to the general custom of 
the language. Biit when men of education have chosen, on some occasions, 
to adopt a mode of construction not uncommon in the most respectable 
Greek and Latin classics, we think it improper to regard such variations 
from the ordinary construction as blunders. The grammarian steps out of 
his place, as we have had occasion before to observe, when he attempts to 
legislate in regard of language. His business is to investigate and describe 
the usages of language, and to account for them, if he can ; but not to dic- 
tate what they ought to be. He may with propriety distinguish anomalous 
and clumsy, or otherwise objectionable forms of expression, and caution the 
learner against imitating them, though they may be found in writers of the 
highest celebrity ; but he ought not to stigmatize as blunders forms which 
have obtained the sanction of reputable usage. 

Some examples may be fouitd in respectable authors, of a singular noun 
connected with others by the preposition with taking the plural form of the 
verb ; as if, for example, we were to say, John toith his brothers are going 
to the country. "We would not imitate this model of construction. 

Tenses connected together should be all of the same form, whether 
simple, emphatic, or progressive. Thus, The man eats and drinks, or The 
man is eating and (is) drinking. Does he eat and (does he) drink, or Is 
he eating a7id drinking. Yerbs of different times, however, are often con- 
nected by the copulative in the same construction ; John arrived tltis morn- 
ing, and WILL GO away this evening. The tense to be used must be deter- 
mined by the sense, and a knowledge of the functions which each tense 
performs ; not by the connection. 

Note (6). — In languages whieli have distinct forms for the several plural 
persons, the rule is the same as when individuals of different persons are 
united under the same plural pronoun. If one of two or more individuals 
performs the part of the first person, (namely, that of speaker,) the plural 
pronoun is the first person, and the plural verb is, of course, the same per- 
son. Again, if of two or more individuals one performs the part of the 
second person, (the party addressed,) and the rest the part of third persons, 
(that is, of parties only spoken of,) the plural pronoun is the second pei'son, 
and the verb, of course, is of the same person. The pronouns and verbs 
are of the third person plural, when all the individual subjects represented 
by the pronouns are only spoken of — that is, in other words, when both the 
speaker and the party addressed are excluded. 

Rule V. — (10) When two or more singular subjects are con- 
nected by the alternative conjunction or, the verb employed is of 

(10) Kepeat EiTLE V. 



484 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 149. 

the singular form ; as, James or William is going to accompany 
me. That the verb should be singular follows from the fact that 
the assertion applies only to one of the subjects, not to both. 

Rule VI. — (11) When two or more singular subjects are con- 
nected by the negative alternative nor^ the verb employed is of the 
singular form, as, Neither James nor William is about to accompany 
me. 

(12) In this case, though the verb is of the singular form, the nega- 
tion applies to both subjects. It is denied that either one or other is 
about to accompany me. The assertion is to be regarded as made of 
the two subjects separately viewed, or as suppressed in the first, and 
to be supplied from the second proposition. 

There are exceptions found to these two rules ; but they are rare 
in English, and not to be imitated. 

Rule VII. — (13) When two subjects, the one singular, the other 
plural, are connected in the same assertion by or or by nor, if the 
latter is plural, the plural form of the verb is employed ; if the lat- 
ter, on the contrary, is singular, the verb is singular. This is when 
the verb follows the subjects, which is generally the case ; if not it 
agrees with the nearest subject. 

In other words, when two subjects, the one singular, the other 
plural, are connected in the same assertion by the conjunctions or 
or ?2or, the verb is of the number of the nearest subject. For ex- 
ample, Either the master or his servants are to blame. Either the 
servants or the master is to blame. Neither the master nor the 
servants are to blame. Neither the servants nor the master is to 
blame. 

(14) "We are not certain that as regards this last rule examples of a 
contrary usage may not be found in reputable authors, but we believe 
that it may be followed with safety in all cases. 

(15) "When subjects of different persons are connected by oe or nor 
it is more difficult to settle the usage. Most of the grammarians agree 



(11) Eepeat Ettle YI., with example. 

(12) Eepeat the remark about the extent of the negation in this case. Any exceptions 
to the two preceding rules ? 

(13) Eepeat Eitle VII., particularly the second form of it with examples. 

(14) "What is said of exceptions ? 

(15) What is the opinion of most grammarians in reference to the concord of verbs with 



§ 150.] OBSERVATIONS ON BUT = ONLY. 485 

that the verb should be of the same person with the nearest subject ; 
that is, with the last, except in some few instances in which tlie verb 
precedes the subject nouns. (16) Others contend that all construc- 
tions with a single verb applied to subjects alternatively connected of 
variant persons or variant numbers should be avoided. (17) But the 
fact is, they have not been avoided, but have been used by good 
authors. (18) Generally speaking the practice is the same in regard 
of variant persons as variant numbers ; namely, the verb is made to 
agree with the nearest. (19) The employment of singular and plural 
alternative subjects to the same verb, it seems to us may be always 
practised with propriety according to Eule YII. ; but the use of dif- 
ferent persons in this kind of elliptical construction is sometimes ex- 
cessively awkward. (20) "Whenever this happens it is advisable to 
repeat the verb with each subject, and complete both propositions. 
Thus, instead of Either the toy or 1 am wrong, we may better complete 
the construction and say. Either the hoy is wrong, or I am wrong. 
"With this explanation we may give as. 

Rule VIII. — (21) When subjects of different persons are con- 
nected alternatively in the same assertion, the verb agrees in person 
with the nearest subject. 

ExEECisEs I., II., &c. — ^Furnish examples to illustrate Rules Y., 
YI., YII., YIII. 

§ 150. "We here add some additional explanation of the use of but equiva- 
lent to only, drawn partly from Mr. H. Tooke. We commence by selecting 
two examples (furnished by Mr. Tooke) from Chaucer, of the full construc- 
tion with the negative expressed. 

" For myn entent is not but to play." 

" That I may have nat (not) but my meate and drinke." 

" We should now say my intent is but to play" &e. We add two more ex- 
amples from Chaucer. 

" All n' is but conseil to virginitee." 
" For gentillesse n' is but the renommee 
Of their auncestres, for hir (their) high bountee," <fec. 



subjects of different persons connected by or or kor ? (16) What do others think ? ^17) 
What has in fact happened already in the' use of language? (18) Eepeat what has been 
the general practice as to concord. (19) What opinion is asserted by the author? (20) 
What advice is given, when the connection of subjects of different persons leads to awkward 
forms of expression ? 

(21) Eepeat Rule VIII. 



486 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 150. 

"We should now say, " All is but counsel to virginity ; and Gentillesse is 
BUT the renown, &c. W ib == 'Ee is = is not, 

" The omission of the negative before but," says H. Tooke, " though now 
very common, is one of the most blamable and corrupt abbreviations of 
construction which is used in our language,'' (fcc. 

Dr. Noah Webster says, " This use of but is a modern innovation," The 
term "modern" is rather vague. "We shall not therefore venture to coii- 
ti-adict Dr. Webster's assertion. "We state the fact, that but was employed 
in the manner described above, the manner to which Dr. Webster refers, 
before the middle of the sixteenth century. We find hut thus employed in 
Tyudale's version, 1534; Cranmer's, 1539, and in the Geneva version, 1557, 
We give Tyndale's translation of Mark 5 : 28, already quoted, as an example 
from the authorized version. "For she thought: yf I maye hut touche his 
clothes," &c. We find examples of this use even as early as the fourteenth 
century. "But that ligt thing of oure tribulacioun that lastith now but as 
it were bi a momente," (fee, Wiclif, 1380. The following are from Wiciif's 
cotemporary, Chaucer : 

" Ifow, sire, quod she, but o (one) word er I go." 

Cant. Tales, line 7433. 
We have noted f^nother example, but have lost the reference: 
" Which that am but lorne," 

"= am but lost = only lost. 

Dr. Webster may well say that this use is " perhaps too firmly estab- 
lished to be corrected." He adds, " Tlie common people in America retain 
the original correct phrase, usually employing a negative. The}' do not 
say, I have but one. On the other hand, they say, I have not hut one," (pi'o- 
nounced I haven't but one) ; " that is, I have not except one — except one, 
and I have none." Webst. Diet., art But. 

It might possibly be objected to this explanation of the use of but equiva- 
lent to only, that, if we introduce the negative before but thus used, the 
sense is in some cases entirely changed. Thus, we say, He can bvt fail in his 
attempt, and He cam^oi but fail in his attempt. The first expression is 
equivalent to. He can O'ifLY fail, nothing more ; the last to, He can do nothing 
else but must fail (so far as the opinion of the speaker is concerned), ^H his 
attempt. 

The objection drawn from such examples as this is not> we think, insu- 
perable. We can readily imagine that, after the suppression of the negative, 
originally used, had become idiomatic, and had been forgotten, it was found 
convenient to give some of these idiomatic expressions a negative form. 
This seems to us the probable history of the usage on which the supposed 
obiecti'^r! ve'its. To illustrate by an exnmple, when the proposition, He can 
BUT fail in the attempt, had become idiomatic — the received formula to ex- 
press. He can only fail in the attempty there would appear no objection to 



§ 151.] THE TRANSITIONS OF THE WORD BUT. 487 

affix the particle not to can for the purpose of expressing, He cannot {do any 
thing), or he can do nothing o^ly fail. Both forms of expression may be 
regarded as idiomatic and elliptical, and as expressing a sense which could 
scarcely be ascertained by a mere reference to the ordinary laws of language. 
We must in addition have recourse to the history of the language, if we 
would trace such usages successfully. In such cases, the whole expression 
has come, by conventional usage, to bear a meaning which is not to be dis- 
covered by ascertaining the proper import of the several words and their 
construction. This seems to us the proper description of idiomatic expres- 
sions. In forming all such, the laws of language — the fixed principles which 
have generally guided its development — have been held in abeyance, and a 
conventional sanction has been given to the products of accident, or of the 
caprice of fashion. 

We see no reason, because of such examples as that now considered, for 
refusing to acquiesce in the account of this singular use of the word but 
given by Mr. Tooke, and sanctioned by Dr. Webster and other lexicogra- 
phers and grammarians. We cannot give the same ready acquiescence, as 
will be seen presently, to some other opinions advanced by Mr. Tooke in 
reference to this word. 

§ 151. The word but performs such important and various and appa- 
rently dissimilar functions in our language, that it has given occasion to 
much speculation among grammarians and philologists. For these reasons, 
we subjoin a few additional observations, in which we shall attempt to trace 
the steps by which it has made the transition from the earliest use, with 
which we are acquainted, to that which is apparently its latest, and, cer- 
tainly, its most common use at the present time. We are the more induced 
to do this, because the accounts commonly given of the origin of the adver- 
sative and exceptive uses of but do not appear to us completely satisfactory. 
We cannot acquiesce in some of the rash conclusions which Mr. H. Tooke 
defends in his usual dictatorial manner. We shall subject his reasonings to 
a brief examination, reject what appears to us inconclusive, and endeavor to 
trace the probable history of the transition from the exceptive to the adver- 
sative use of this very important word. 

The word hut was employed in the earliest times in a sense distinct from 
any in which it is now employed. It seems to have been nearly equivalent 
to without, and to have had a just claim to be considered a preposition. 

Mr. Tooke, in his attempt to establish a distinction between hut and hot, 
has furnished a host of examples of this apparently original use of hut from 
Gawin Douglas's Translation of the Eneid. We give a few of these examples 
in the briefest manner consistent with our purpose, and refer the inquisitive 
reader to the Diversions of Purley (article on the word hut), for the passages 
in connection with these examples. 

" Thare is gret substance ordanit the but dout." 



488 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 151. 

In modern English, There is great substance (wealth, fortune) ordained (de- 
creed) to thee wiTHorT doubt. 

" And als mony nychtes but sterneys leme." 
= And as many nights withol't star-light. 

" Before Eneas feite stude, but delay." 
= Before uEneai feet stood without delay." 

" Bot of the bargane maid end, but delay." 

"We have followed the pointing of Mr. Taylor's edition of the Diversions 
of Purley. "We see no reason, however, for nsing the comma in the last two 
examples, if it is unnecessary in the first two. 

In all these passages but is employed, like a preposition, before single 
nouns. It connects a word-complement, not a proposition-complement. Mr. 
Tooke draws no distinction between this use of but and its still current use, 
to express exception. Is'o doubt, the two uses are allied, and we believe the 
present exceptive use has originated from the more ancient use exhibited 
above. Still there is a marked transition from the one to the other. In not 
one of these passages could except or save be substituted for but, as they can 
generally, if not universally for but exceptive. Compare with these exam- 
ples, John has learnt all his lesso7is but owe. " All but the wakeful night- 
ingale." Here but is manifestly equivalent to except, save. 

Examples of the use of but similar to those above from Gawin Douglas 
are, we believe, to be found chiefly in Scotch authors. This use is rarely 
found in the writers of South Britain, of even the earliest date. 

Mr. Tooke has attempted to prove that but advereative, employed to 
connect a proposition in some respect opposed to the tenor of the preceding 
discoui'se, is a word entirely distinct from but employed for the other pur- 
poses above mentioned ; and his conclusions in reference to this matter 
have been followed by many since his time, apparently without much exam- 
ination. This adversative but is, according to Mr. Tooke's view, the im- 
perative of an Anglo-Saxon verb botan to boot, and was spelled bot ; where- 
as but is the imperative of be-utan, to be out. In reference to Mr. Locke, 
he remarks, "It was the corrupt use of this one word (but) in modern Eng- 
lish, for two words (bot and but) originally (in the Anglo-Saxon) very 
different in signification, though (by repeated abbreviation and corruption) 
approaching in sound, which chiefly misled him." By this passage we 
might be led to conclude that bot, distinct from but, is found employed as a 
conjunction in the Anglo-Saxon language. The word bot or bote meaning 
boot, advantage, remedy, is indeed found in Anglo-Saxon employed as a noun. 
But we doubt whether this word was ever used alone in Anglo-Saxon or 
old English, as a connective. {To bote, is sometimes used to mean moreover.) 
As to the verb botan, and its imperative bot or bote, we can find no reason 
to believe that they ever existed, except in the imaginations of Mr. Tooke 
and some of his followers. 



§ 151.] THE TRANSITIONS OF THE WORD BUT. 489 

"We suspect that hot in Gawin Douglas is only a variation in spelling, 
the orthography of those times being, as Mr. Tooke himself admits, very un- 
settled. Mr. Richardson in his dictionary has given examples of hot and bote 
from Robert of Gloucester and others ; but in these examples there is no 
distinction maintained between hut and hot or bote. Bot and bote are used 
on several occasions, when the sense is plainly butan, except. As, for ex- 
ample, 

"ISTe that no man ys wurthe to be ycluped (called) Kyng. 

Bote the heye king of heuene," &c. 
"That in all the lond suld be no king bot he." 

Bote and hot are plainly here employed for but = except, and not for the 
adversative but. Such examples show that the authors, to whom Mr. Tooke 
aad Mr. Richardson appeal, are not to be relied on to establish the diifferent 
origin of the adversative but, and but = without and except, since they spell 
the word in all these senses indifferently bot or bote or but. Mr. Richardson 
himself, as well as the authors whom he quotes, seems to confound these 
meanings of but, which he meant to separate. He has arranged one, if not 
two, examples under but or bot, which should have been, on his principles, 
placed under but. We refer to the citations from Holland, Plinie, &c., 
and from Feltham. The last is perhaps doubtful. See Richardson's Diet. 
Art. But. 

Examples of butan or buton used in the adversative sense of our modern 
but are not, we suspect, to be found in Anglo-Saxon. The connection which 
we express by but adversative seems to have been expressed invariably 
in that language by ac ; never by bot, as an incautious reader of the Diver- 
sions of Purley might be led to suppose. No trace of ac thus used (except it is 
in eke) remains in our language. Its place seems to have been supplied not 
by bot from botan — the invention of Mr. Tooke — but by an insensible ex- 
tension of the exceptive but. The transition from the exceptive use of but 
to but adversative, in cases where it has the greatest force, does not appear to 
us so violent as Mr. Tooke represents it. Let us take for example that pas- 
sage in the 115th Psalm ; "They have moiiths, but they speak not, eyes have 
they, but they see not," <fec. The transition from the exceptive to the use 
here found does not seem to us much wider than from the use equivalent to 
the preposition without to the exceptive sense. And yet Mr. Tooke thinks 
these so much alike that he does not recognise them as distinct. By but ex- 
ceptive we except a complementary word, by but adversative a pi'oposition. 
The first, in other words, indicates an exception /rom a proposition, the latter 
an exception from the discourse — -from the train of thought. Mr. Tooke 
seems to us to have been led, by his attempt to support a foregone conclusion, 
to rob but adversative of an essential part of its significance. It fits his pur- 
pose to make it mean only add, and in this way he has entirely destroyed 
all distinction between this word and and. 



490 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ l5l. 

It may be added that ]SIi'. Tooke admits that ancient authors have not 
consistently observed the distinction between hot and hut. He confesses 
that no trace of it can be found in Chancer, and we can find none in "Wiclif 's 
l^ew Testament,, printed by Bagster fi'om a good manuscript. 

"We certainly see no necessity for the high-handed course pursued by 
Mr. Tooke in order to account for the distinction between hut adversative 
and hut exceptive. But we do not presume to pronounce a positive opinion. 
We leave the question to be settled by those who possess sufficient acquaint- 
ance with Anglo-Saxon, and old English literature, in which we do not pre- 
tend to be versed. TVe regard Mr. Tooke's rash and confident ipse dixit as 
of no weight in the case before us, and consider the question open for dis- 
cussion. 

In the mean time we have traced the transition of hit from one meaning 
to another, so far as we have been able to do it by the helps accessible to us. 
To sum up the results we have, 

1st. But = WriHOUT. This is likely the primary use of this word, and 
likely enough, as H. Tooke and others allege, both the Anglo-Saxon hutan 
or huton and this are the imperative he-utan of heon-utan. It is now found 
almost exclusively in the older Scotch writers, and is, perhaps, the same 
word still used adverhially in the colloquial Scotch in the expression gang 
BUT = go out. 

2d. But == Except. This meaning, like the last is usually traced to the 
original sense of the compound he-utan, he out = except Both these mean- 
ings are expressed in the Anglo-Saxon by hutan or huton. 

3d. But = Oxlt. This is the same as the last when the negative is sup- 
plied. So far we accept the account given by Mr. Tooke & Co. 

4th. But Adveraative. This indicates, as we have already shown, the 
addition or connection of something variant from what precedes ; or perhaps 
we may venture to say an exception in reference to the train of the discourse, 
whereas hut in the second sense indicates an exception in reference to the 
proposition in which it is employed. 

There remains a point yet to be settled. "With what class of words shall 
we arrange but Exceptive ? When employed in the first-mentioned manner 
as equivalent to without, the Anglo-Saxon grammarians call it a preposition, 
and class it with those which take after them a dative case ; with this use 
we have nothing to do in this place, as it is long since entirely obselete. 

But exceptive has also been recognised by many of oui* late grammarians, 
and by some lexicographers as a preposition. But if hut exceptive is a pre- 
position, it should, according to the definition which these same grammarians 
give of a preposition, take the noun which it connects always in the acccusative 
case. This we think it never does, according to the most reputable usage of 
the language, except when the accusative which follows is plainly the objec- 
tive modification of a verb suppressed. For example, we consider, There is 
nobody here but I, the true construction, and not, There is nc^dy here but 



§ 151.] TRANSITIONS OF THE WORD BUT. 491 

]viE. When this expression is fully developed, it would be, There is nobody 
here but / am here = except I am here. When the verb suppressed is an 
active verb, and the noun after but would, if the verb were supplied, stand 
to it in the relation of objective modification, we place this noun in the ac- 
cusative thus, / saw nobody but him = / saw nobody but, or, except I saw him. 
That is, I saw nobody be out I saw him. In this form I saw him is subject to 
the conjunctive verb be out. 

We believe that examples may be found in reputable authors of the use 
of an accusative dependent on but alone ; but we think they are not to be 
imitated. We subjoin a few examples of what we consider the correct usage 
of the language in this matter, as well as the general usage of educated 
speakers and writers. The intelligent reader will readily perceive that the 
older these examples are the more weight they have in determining the 
question before us. If old, they prove that the present usage is not a mod- 
ern refinement of the educated classes, or based on grammatical theories, but 
the effect of spontaneous development. We adduce first a line already 
quoted from one of our oldest English authors. 

" That in alle the lond suld be no king but he." 

"There is none other but he." Mark 12: 32. He hath not grieved me but in 
part." "Neither was I tanght it but by the revelation of Jesus Christ." 
In all these examples, whether we say that but connects a complementary 
proposition, or that it only connects a complementary word, it is obvious 
that it has not the characteristic of a preposition. In the first two examples 
it is followed by a nominative case, in the last two by a preposition. 

It is not perhaps uncommon to hear persons use me after but where me 
cannot be the objective modification of any other word. Perhaps the same 
persons might be found to say, there is nobody in the house but he, and yet 
say, there is nobody here but me. This may be attributable to the fact to 
be noticed in another place (See § 155: 12), that in the language of the un- 
educated me is used as nominative in all cases where it is not manifestly the 
immediate subject-noun to a verb. Thus, the answer of the uneducated 
classes to the question, Who is there ? is universally me. In the same man- 
ner the accusative (or rather in this case we should say the dative) is still 
used by the uneducated after comparatives and than, as He is taller than me. 
We may place these expressions on a level with. There is nobody here but 
me, as regards purity of language. The dative after than has perhaps 
stronger claims to be recognised as English than the accusative after but; 
and consequently than has as great if not greater claims than but to be con- 
sidered soynetimes a preposition. We may cite Milton as authoi'ity for the 
use of a dative or accusative after than. 

" Belial came last, than whom a spirit more lewd 
Fell not from Heaven," <fec. 

The present usage of correct writers and speakers, we believe, is to ayoid 



492 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 152. 

all constructions alike, in which either but or than take after them an ob- 
lique case, which is not the modification of some other word expressed or 
implied in the discourse. 

In a word then, we consider hit as now employed in our language a con- 
junctive word, (a conjunctive propositioyi, if you please), not a preposition ; 
though the old hut = without was rightly considered a preposition, that is, 
a word used in connection with a single word employed to modify a principal 
word, as distinguished from a word used to connect either two propositions, 
or two independent modifications of the same proposition or the same pi'in- 
cipal word. In the following passage from ^Ifric's Colloquium, we haye 
beautiful examples of huton conjunction and butan preposition. Whether 
the distinction here obseryable in the spelling is intentional or not, we are 
not able to determine. " I^e canst thee huntian butox mid nettum ?" Canst 
thou not (or knowest thou not how to) hunt except with nets ? = except to 
hunt tcith nets. This usage exactly agrees with that of but exceptive in the 
language of the present day. Buton here connects either two propositions 
or two independent modifications of ca^ist (or perhaps huntian), according as 
we choose to supply the construction. The answer to the above question is, 
" Gea, butax nettum huntian ic maeg." Yes, I can hunt without nets. Here 
butan is a preposition and with the dative 7iettum forms a noun and preposi- 
tion modification of the infinitive huntian. 

Ox THE DiSTTNXTIOX BETWEEN PEEPOSniOXS AXD CoXJUNXTIOXS. 

§ 152. We may here submit a few remarks on a subject which has caused 
some controversy among grammarians ; we mean the distinction which sep- 
arates the two classes of words called prepositions and conjunctions. 

The more ancient grammarians have generally represented prepositions 
and conjunctions as having the common property of serving as connectives, 
and as distinguished by the sole fact, that prepositions connect only words, 
and conjunctions connect only propositions. Many of the modern gramma- 
rians contend, on the contraiy, that conjunctions sometimes connect words, 
as well as propositions. All admit that two or more subjects, two or more 
predicates, and two or more similar and independent complements may be 
united by a conjunction ; but the first-mentioned class, including some re- 
cent grammarians, as well as the more ancient, contend that in all such 
cases the discoui'se may be resolved into as many propositions, as there are 
similar members of a proposition connected by conjunctions. Thus, John 
AXD James are studious, may be resolved into the two independent proposi- 
tions, John is studious, and James is studious. John reads and writes, may 
be resolved into the propositions, John reads, and John lorites. William 
studies Greek and mathematics, into William studies Greek, and William 
studies mathematics. 

The other class of grammarians contend that words are sometimes con- 



§ 152.] CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS. 493 

nected together by conjunctions, when no such resolution into separate pro- 
positions can be effected. They present in confirmation of this fact such ex- 
amples as the following : " A man of wisdom and virtue is a perfect charac- 
ter." " Three and three make six." " The sides ab, bc, and ca form a tri- 
angle." "John and Maiy are a handsome couple." "John and Thomas 
carry a sack to the market." " Here (to use the language of Dr. Crombie) 
it is not implied that a man of wisdom is a perfect character ; but a man of 
wisdom combined with virtue." It is not implied that John is a handsome 
couple, or that Mary is a handsome cov/ple ; that John carries a sack to the 
market, or that Thomas carries a sack to the market, but that they jointly 
carry the sack. Dr. Latham (First Outlines, p. 21), as quoted by Sir John 
Stoddart, says, " The answer to this lies in giving the proper limitation to 
the predicates. It is not true that John and Thomas each carry a sack ; but 
it is true that they each of them carry. It is not true that each three makes 
six ; but it is true that each three makes (i. e. contributes to the making). 
As far then as the essential parts of the predicate are concerned, there are 
two propositions ; and it is upon the essential parts only that a grammarian 
rests his definition of a conjunction." We are astonished at the authoritative 
air with which Dr. Latham propounds this argument, and at the readiness 
with which Sir John Stoddart approves it, and avails himself of it. Suppose 
we propose as an example, John and Mary are a couple whom all their neigh- 
bors adtnire, how will Dr. Latham give us a "proper limitation," so as to 
exclude the word couple ? And how will he apply his arbitrary method of 
limitation to the following proposition, Two and three are five ? Will he say 
that are, which he represents, in common with other grammarians, as per- 
forming solely the function of copula, is the essential part of the predicate ? 
Dr. Latham's argument appears to us wholly unsatisfactory, and Sir John's 
commentary does not seem to help it. If the definitions of prepositions and 
conjunctions given by the old grammarians were worth defending, (which 
we think they are not,) it seems to us the best mode of defence to maintain 
boldly, that a plurality of subjects constitutes a plurality of propositions, 
and that in the words, Johii and Mary are a happy couple, two propositions 
are found, because there are two distinct subjects. 

In the whole of this controversy it has been taken for granted by one 
party, (and not explicitly denied by some of their opponents,) that there is 
\\it\Q functionai distinction between conjunctions and prepositions, save as 
regards the classes of expression which they come between. So far as 
concerns the conjunctions which connect co-ordinate propositions, and it 
is in reference to these exclusively that the controversy has originated, 
we think this a great mistake. The functions of this class of conjunctions 
are essentially distinct both from those of prepositions and from those of the 
conjunctions and conjunctive words which connect accessories with principal 
propositions. Both prepositions and this last-named class of conjunctives 
are employed as we have before intimated in forming inodifications, the pre- 



494 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 152. 

positions with a noun, the conjunctives with a proposition. Sometimes the 
same word is employed for both these purposes. When employed in the 
first way the grammarians choose to call it a preposition, when in the latter 
way a conjunction. Between these two classes of words as defined by the 
grammarians, we admit freely, that the distinction, often the sole distinction 
is, that the one class performs a function between words, the other between 
propositions. 

But the class of conjunctions which we are now considering, and the 
only class involved in the controversy, serve a purpose totally distinct from 
prepositions and the conjunctives of accessories. They are not employed to 
indicate the connection of onodifications, but the connection of co-ordinate or 
independent expressions. Now, as modifying expressions sometimes consist 
of single words or phrases, sometimes of propositions; so, co-ordinate ex- 
pressions, that is, expressions which we have occasion to connect in co-ordi- 
nate construction, may sometimes happen to be single words or phrases, as 
well as propositions. We have occasion in fact, as we have already seen, to 
connect independent propositions having no modifying influence on each other, 
to connect independent membei's of propositions, and to connect independent 
modifications. We mean, of course, independent of each other. As this co- 
ordinate connection is a very simple function, it is altogether unnecessary to 
employ different words to unite these several classes of co-ordinates. Another 
reason for employing the same words to connect these different classes of co- 
ordinates is, that co-ordinate members, and co-ordinate modifications can 
very generally be readily expanded into complete independent propositions. 
But eases occur, in which this is perhaps impossible, and attempts to effect 
it are fruitless, and lead, as we have seen, to absurdities. If the distinct 
functions of the two great classes of conjunctive words had been properly 
exhibited, the grammarians would likely have kept clear of this controversy. 
At least, so we think. 



CHAPTER XI. 



OF INTEEJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATOEY WOEDS AND 
PHEASES. 

§ 153. Inteejections. — (1) In the introduction we distinguished 
two species of language or great classes of signs used as means of inter- 
communication between different minds, namely, the natural and the 
artificial ; and we remarked, that (what are called) interjections be- 
long to the first of these classes. (2) This class of words does not, 
as we may suppose, claim a large share of attention from the gramma- 
rian, whose proper province is to investigate the structure of artificial 
or articulate language. (3) Yet as interjections enter into the struc- 
ture of discourse, and even, as we shall see, sometimes of compound 
propositions, we must not pass them over with entire neglect. 

(4) The name interjection, meaning something thrown detween, has 
been given to this class of signs, because they are tlirown between the 
parts of discourse ; not between the parts of speech or parts of pro- 
positions, as some have inconsiderately asserted. (5) As we have said 
already, they may be regarded as portions of natural language super- 
added to artificial language. (6) When naturally introduced, they 
spring spontaneously from the emotion of the speaker or writer, serv- 
ing to give animation to discourse, or to express feelings more briefly 
and more impressively than can be done by artificial speech. 

(7) One distinguishing circumstance to be remarked in reference to 
this class of signs is, that each of them expresses a particular feeling or 
emotion completely, and so is equivalent to a proposition. 

§ 153. (1) What is referred to as mentioned in the introduction ? (2) Do interjections 
claim much attention from the grammarian ? Season ? (3) Why may they not be alto- 
gether overlooked ? > 

(4) What is the meaning of the name interjection? (5) How may these words be re- 
garded ? (6) From what do they spring, when naturally introduced, and what purposes do 
they serve ? 

(7) Mention an important circumstance in reference to this class of words. 



496 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 153. 

(8) Since in this case propositions are expressed by single signs, 
there is no structure^ so far as a solitary interjection is concerned ; 
and, therefore, no work for the grammarian — no analysis of a simple 
proposition. (9) Thus 6>, often spelled oh, is equivalent to Iwish^ de- 
sire^ &c., in a weaker or stronger degree, according to the force given 
to the sound in utterance. Oh {Scotice and more expressively och) 
= I feel fjain^ or anguish. Ah = / am filled with wonder^ surprise^ &c. 
Alas == I feel grief sorrow., V^^V^ &c. Lo = the imperatives loo\ 
lehold., see., &c. These are the only interjections which find a place 
often in dignified discourse. (10) In writings of a dramatic character, 
exhibiting colloquial discourse, and in ordinary conversation many 
other words of this class enter.* 

(11) We have one more (and an important) remark to make in 
reference to this class of words. Interjections being, as we have said, 
equivalent to propositions, like other propositions, some of them admit 
of modification by accessory propositions. (12) This fact is perhaps 
most remarkable in the case of O, or oh, the interjection expressive of 
wishing. This word frequently takes after it a substantive accessory as 
objective modification to the verb which is implied in it. (3 3) Exam- 
ples : '' Oh that I had wings like a dove." = / wish that I had wings 
like a dove. " Oh that I were as in months past," &c. " Oh that I 



* We subjoin the following classified list of the principal words general- 
ly recognised by grammarians as interjections, borrowed chiefly from Dr. 
Crombie, with some suppressions, additions and modifications : 

1. Interjections expressive of joy, as hei/, io, &c. 2. Of grief: oh, ah, alas 
alack. 3. Of wonder : ah ! hah ! aha ! hah ! 4. Of wishing : 0, oh. is 
often used with the vocative or case of address. 5. Aversion or contempt : 
tush, pshaw, fie, poh, pugh. 6. Laughter: ha ha. 7. Desire of attention: lo, 
halloo, hem. 8. Languor : heigh ho. 9. Desire of silence : hush, hist, mum. 
10. Deliberation: hum. 11. Exultation: huzza, hurrah, &<i. 12. Pain: oA. 
It will be observed here that the same word, that is, a word represented by 
the same characters in writing, is used to express very different emotions ; 
but then the word is very differently uttered, with a sound and intonation 
in each case accommodated to the emotion, so that in the spoken language 
these words may be regarded as in fact different signs, or distinct utterances. 
The above list might be greatly enlarged, without introducing into it, after 
the example of the grammarians, exclamatory words and phrases. 

(8) What follows from this circumstance ? (9) Give examples of the use of the princi- 
pal interjections. (10) In what kind of writings do interjections chiefly occur? 

(11) What other important circumstance is mentioned in reference to interjections? 
(12) In what case is the fact mentioned most remarkable ? (13) Give examples. 



§ 154.] EXCLAMATORY WORDS AND PHRASES. 497 

knew where I might find him." " Oli that there were such an heart 
in them." 



(14) The proposition which follows lo might, perhaps, be regarded 
in the same way as accessory to it ; for example, in expressions of this 
form, " Lo the winter is past," &c. We are rather inclined to con- 
sider Z6>, in such expressions as equivalent to a simple imperative pro- 
position, like the exclamatory words, 'behold^ see^ employed for the pur- 
pose of calling the attention of the party addressed, and the following 
proposition as independent. (15) What is here said may be extended 
to many imperatives used in exclamation. (16) The vocative or case 
of address is used also for the purpose of arresting attention, and like 
these imperatives stands independent, and does not mingle in the con- 
struction of the neighboring proposition. It may be said to be used 
in an interjectional way. 

§ 154. Exclamatory Words and Phrases. — (1) Exclamatory 
words and phrases often serve a purpose very similar to that which 
interjections serve. (2) The distinction is that interjections serve only 
the purpose mentioned, but the exclamatory words are signs of articu- 
late language, and are most commonly employed like other words in. 
forming regular propositions. (3) Indeed these exclamatory words 
and phrases should, perhaps, always be treated as contracted proposi- 
tions^ and in analysis, the learner should be taught to supply the ellip- 
sis, when there is a suppression of the parts essential to a complete pro- 
position. This is the only method of obtaining a satisfactory explanation 
of this kind of expressions ; and when this is done, they are brought 
within the reach of the ordinary rules for the analysis of propositions. 

We need not include among exclamatory words and phrases ex- 
pressions which are manifestly complete propositions. Yet some forms 
of expression which have been enumerated even among the interjec- 
tions ought to be considered as propositions. (4) Such are the im- 
peratives, heliold^ hegone^ hail, hold, looTc, marTc, &c. When these 
occur there is perhaps seldom any necessity of supplying a word. (5) 
They are the imperative in its usual form, with the subject implied. 
Such of these verbs as are active either have an objective modification 

(14) What is said oflo in reference to taking an accessory ? (15) To what class of words 
does this remark extend ? (16) What is said of the case of address ? 

§ 154 (1) What kind of purpose do exclamatory words and phrases serve? (2) What is 
the distinction between them and interjections? (3) How should they, perhaps, be 
treated ? 

(4) Mention some forms of expression improperly classed as exclamatory or as interjec- 
tions. (5) What is said of these words? 

32 



498 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§154. 

implied, or take the folloTving proposition, or sometimes a larger portion 
of the following discourse as their objective modification or limitation. 
(6) In the use of many other exclamatory expressions there is 
an obvious ellipsis. (7) For example: Welcome == (you are) well- 
come ; it is well, I am glad, that you have come. Adieu = To God (/ 
comm.end you.) Me miserable, perhaps = It is miserable in reference 
to me, or, It is miserable for me. Me in all such cases is likely a 
remnant of the Anglo-Saxon dative. (8) Ah me ! Alas for him ! and 
similar exclamations may, perhaps, be regarded as exhibiting a mixture 
of natural and articulate or organized language. Me and for him are 
either dative and noun and preposition complements to the verbal 
conception included in ah and alas respectively, or they are used 
elliptically instead of accessories to these verbal conceptions. Ah me 
•= I feel sorroio for me, or, I feel sorroic, as regards me (myself). 

(9) Would God, and Would to God are also sometimes used in the 
exclamatory way without a subject. "We have examples both with 
the subject suppressed and with the subject expressed. " Would God 
it were morning !" '■''Would to God ye could bear with me." "/ 
would to God ye did reign." " I would, to God, that not only thou," 
&c. Acts 26 : 29. A comparison of these passages affords a satisfac- 
tory explanation of the ellipsis. 

(10) The true way of explaining all such exclamatory expressions 
is to expand them into propositions. If the grammarian thinks this 
business lies out of his path, he will content himself with calling them 
exclamatory expressions. The learner must not hope in aU cases to 
succeed by this process of expansion or development in obtaining pro- 
positions which vsdll express the intended meaning with the same 
spirit and energy as the exclamatory word ; but if we can succeed in 
transforming such expressions into a proposition, giving the sense even 
in a homely and flat manner, it affords a test, and perhaps the only 
satisfactory test, that we thoroughly understand them. 

Note — The learner must not be surprised if he shoiild sometimes 
find it pecuUarly difficult to unravel exclamatory language. The diflSculty 
is not attributable to the perplexity of grammatical principles, but to the 
fact that such expressions are the language of passion, and that passion dis- 
regards grammatical laws, as it often does all other laws. Grammar and 



(6) What occurs in some other exclamatory expressions? (7) Explain a number of 
these. (8) Repeat what is said of ah me ! and alas for him ! &c. 

(9) Repeat what is said of the exclamation would God, or would to God. Give ex- 
amples. 

(10) "What is the true way of explaining exclamatory expressions? 



§ 154.] EXCLAMATORY WORDS AND PHRASES. 499 

grammatical principles are the product of human reason ; they regulate the 
rational interchange of thought ; they have no certain application to the 
reveries of deep emotion. The man overpowered by strong emotion, espe- 
cially in his reveries addressed to himself, does not take the trouble to ex- 
press himself fully, or with reference to the usual laws of language. 
Hurried on by passion, he utters fragments of the train which occupies his 
mind, perhaps only the main conceptions, in a disjointed manner. If gram- 
mar should fail to reduce such language under law, it is what is to be ex- 
pected. We inay illustrate this by a reference to some of the celebrated 
soliloquies given by dramatic writers, which soliloquies often consist wholly 
of exclamatory words and disjointed conceptions. In these the speaker often 
shows a disregard of all laws alike of regular thought and regular language. 
It would be equally improper on the one hand to subject such outbursts of 
emotion to grammatical animadversion, and, on the other, to demand that 
the grammarian shall explain them in conformity with the general laws of 
language. 

It is unnecessary, in closing our investigation of the different forms of 
compound construction, to submit examples for the exercise of the stu- 
dent in analysis, since he is now supposed to be competent to analyze any 
piece of discourse, and no longer to require that passages involving only 
certain classes of constructions, should be selected for his use. 

When the student is once perfectly familiar with the structure of simple 
propositions, we would recommend the separate exercise of the analysis of 
discourse — tlie examination of the relations of the propositions which consti- 
tute a sentence, omitting 'the examination of the structure of individual 
propositions. In this way a large portion of discourse may be analyzed 
very rapidly and with great profit to those who wish to make progress in 
the correct knowledge of construction. This part of analysis should indeed 
always be conducted separately from the analysis of single propositions by 
the advanced student ; and, when both kinds of analysis are to be applied 
to the same passage, the general analysis of the structure of the discourse — 
separating the several propositions which constitute this structure, and 
describing their connection whether of co-ordination, or as principal and 
accessory in compound assertions — should always precede the analysis of the 
individual propositions. It will not be necessary in the case of those who 
are proficients, to accompany the general analysis always by the particular 
analysis of each proposition, nor that the particular analysis should when 
introduced be extended over all the passage embraced by the general analy- 
sis. A good method is to call the student's attention, when engaged in the 
general analysis, to whatever is mo^t important, most difficult, most neces- 
sary to be inculcated by frequent repetition. In this way a due regard to 
the economy of time and labor may be combined with thorough training. 
The economy recommended appears the more important in the ease before 
us, when we remember that grammatical analysis is an exercise in which 



600 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 155. 

the minds of students cannot be long employed at one time with profit. As 
much as possible should be effected before the attention flags, whilst the in- 
tellectual powers are fresh and vigorous. 

§ 155. We have some additional observations to make on the per- 
sonal and conjunctive pronouns, and on the determinative adjectives, 
which we have purposely reserved till the present time, because some 
of them can be better understood, as well as more briefly expressed, 
after the reader is already acquainted with the structure of the lan- 
guage. 

Additional Observations on the Personal Pronouns. 
For convenience in reference, we head these observations with a 
tabular view of the declension of Anglo-Saxon personal pronouns. 

Declension of the First Person. 
Singular. Plural. 

ISoM. Ic /. We we. 

Gen. Min of me. Ure of m. 

Dat. Me to, for, with me. Us to, for, with us. 

Aco. Me me. Us us. 

Declension of the Second Person. 
l^OM. Thu thou. Ge ye or you. 

Gen. Thin of thee. Eower of you. 

Dat. The to, for, with thee. Eow to, for, &c., you. 

Aco. The thee. Eow you. 

These two pronouns have a dual form, which we have omitted in 
the above table as irrelevant to our purpose. 

Declension of the Third Person. 

SINGULAR. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. 

NoM. He Heo = (He-e) Hit = (He-t) he, she, it. 

Gen. His = (He-es) Hire = (He-e-re) His = (He-es) of him. 
Dat. Him = (He-um) Hire " Him to, &c., him. 

Ago. Hine. Hi Hit him, her, it. 

PLURAL. 

NoM. Hi in all the genders they. 

Gen. Hira " of them. 

Dat. Him " to, &c., them. 

Aco. Hi " them. 



§ 155.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 501 

(1) The nominative / and accusative me of the first person are 
forms which appear to have no etymological connection. The same 
remark applies to the corresponding pronouns in the northern dialects 
and in the Greek and Latin 'and its descendants. In all these lan- 
guages the equivalent pronouns appear to have descended from the same 
two distinct roots from which our / and me have descended. It is 
likely that these two roots may have been in use, to express the func- 
tions of the pronoun of the first person, before the introduction of 
inflection to distinguish the functions of nouns and pronouns. We 
suspect that many irregularities in all languages are to be accounted 
for in the same way. See what has been said on this subject in speak- 
ing of the comparison of adjectives. (§ 94, p. 305, note. 

(2) A connection between we and ws, as some grammarians think, 
may be traced through the possessive form our by the help of the 
other northern dialects. See LatTiam^s Eng. Language. 

(3) The second persons thou and thee are evidently only different 
forms of the same word. The same may be said of the plurals ye and 
you ; (4) but between the singular and plural forms of the pronouns 
both of the first and second persons, there seems to be no etymological 
connection now traceable. 

(5) He.^ she^ it (Anglo-Saxon He, Heo, Hit, see table above) ap- 
pears to have been originally a determinative adjective with the usual 
inflections to indicate gender, number and case {a). (6) Hit instead 
of Set was simply the neuter form of He^ t being the regular inflec- 
tion to denote the neuter gender. Hit.^ losing the aspirate in pronun- 
ciation, has in the modern language become It ; but the ancient form 
Hit is found in our old writers down till the age of Shakspeare. (See 
Diversions of Purley, pp. 339—341. T. Tegg. Lond. 1840.) (7) From 
It there has been formed, within a comparatively recent period, a 
new genitive or possessive pronoun Its instead of the old possessive His 
(■= He-es regular genitive of He^) which as we have already remarked 
(§ 75, p. 188 note), was used in Anglo-Saxon and in English, both as 
masculine and neuter., as late as the times of James the First of Eng- 
land. To the examples in proof of this, given in the place above re- 
ferred to, we may add the following from Bacon's Essays, cited by Dr. 
Lowth : " Learning hath his infancy, when it is but beginning and 

§ 155. (1) What is said of the forms /and me ? 

(2) What of the connection between we knd «s f 

(3) What is said in reference to the singular pronouns of the second person ? (4) What 
of the plural pronouns of both first and second persons? 

(5) Repeat the remark in reference to he, she, it. (6) Repeat what is said of the origin 
of it and the changes of inflection, &c.. which it has undergone. (7) What is said of the 



502 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 155. 

almost childish; then Ms youth, when it is luxuriant and jiwenile; 
then his strength of years, when it is solid and reduced ; and lastly 
his old age, when it waxeth dry and exhaust." Essay 58. '' Put up 
again thy sword into his place." Matt. 26 : 52. 

K"oTE {a). — It is worthy of remark, that the words which serve as pro- 
nouns of the third person in Greek and Latin, were originally determinative 
adjectives. One of the words which served this purpose in Latin {ille, ilia, 
illud,) is still, though with some change of form, employed as the pronoun of 
the third person in the languages of the South of Europe derived from the 
Latin. The Italian egli, feminine ella ; French il, elle ; Spanish, el, ella ; 
and Portuguese, elle, ella, are all forms (corrupted forms, if you please) of the 
Latin pronoun ille. The (so called) definite articles of the three first-named 
languages are also manifestly derived from the same ille. 

(8) Hit occurs in the older editions of Shakspeare, and still more 
frequently in English of earlier dates. (See Div. of Purley as cited 
above.) 

(9) The dative common to He and Hit., as will be observed in the 
paradigm above, was Him., which our grammarians now recognise as 
an accusative form, but which still, like me., us., thee., you., &c., often 
performs a dative function. In Anglo-Saxon it performed always a 
dative or ablative, never an accusative., function. The use of datives 
in the English of the present day has been sufficiently explained. § 79, 
p. 220, note. 

(10) Instead oi Heo., the old feminine form oi He., we have adopted 
the word she in modern English. Some suppose this a corruption of 
the feminine form of the determinative Se., Seo, Thaet., used in Anglo- 
Saxon for the same purpose as our article the., and also as a demonstra- 
tive and relative pronoun. (Quaere : May it not have been formed by 
the coalescence of Se., or Seo and Heo == the she ? Douglas spells the 
word sche.) 

(11) The plural form of He^ Heo., Hit in the Anglo-Saxon, as will 
be seen above, was nominative and accusative Hi.^ genitive Hira., da- 
tive Him., for all genders. In the progress of the language the present 
forms they., their., them have been substituted, though not all at once, 

formation of the word its, and what was the old neuter genitive or possessive ? Repeat 
part of the examples. 

(S) Repeat the observation about hit. 

(9) What was the old dative form of 7ie and Jiit, and what is the present use of this form ? 
Does it still serve sometimes as a daUve f 

(10) What is said of the origin of the form she ? 

(11) Repeat the substance of what is said of the plural of the third person. 



§ 155.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 503 

for these old forms. "We find they in Chaucer and Wiclif. In the 
latter (Translation of the ISTew Testament), this word is uniformly 
written thei. See Bagster's Hexapla, in which we have an edition 
from an ancient manuscript. Most likely the early manuscripts of 
Chaucer have the same orthography. Our modern editors are justly 
censured for having taken improper liberties with the orthography of 
our old writers, and having thus rendered their editions much less 
serviceable to the philological inquirer. Neither Wiclif nor Chaucer 
(so far as we know) appears to have used their or them. Instead of 
these they retain the older English forms Mr and hem^ which are the 
Anglo-Saxon forms with a shght change of orthography. Wiclif 
seems to prefer the use of hem with the preposition of to hir. {Of 
hem instead of hir = the modern their.) (b) 

I^OTE {h). — The old forms hi, hir, hem, were all in use iu the age of 
Robert of Gloucester. Our philologists have not satisfactorily accounted for 
the introduction of they, their, them, to supersede these forms, " It is very 
difficult to say from whence, or why, the pronouns they, them, their, were 
introduced into our language. The Saxon pronouns, hi, hem, and hir, seem 
to have been in constant use in the time of Robert of Gloucester." {Tyr- 
whitfs Essay on the Lang, and Vers, of Chaucer, note 28.) Dr. Latham 
{Eng. Lang., p. 243, 2c? Ed.) says, "The plural forms they, them, in the 
present English, are the plural forms of the root of that." His account of 
the matter seems to us very unsatisfactory. He answers one of the queries 
suggested by Mr. Tyrwhitt only by his bare assertion, and does not, as it 
appears to \is, give a sufficient response to the other. 

Query. Is not they (uniformly written by Wiclif, as has been already 
observed, thei) a word formed from the coalescence of the determinative 
the with the old form hi ; the hi being contracted into thei equivalent to 
the they in the modern language ? Compare with this the Greek ovtos, and 
the French celui = ce-lui, and celle = ce-elle, &c. Are not their (= the-hir) 
and them (= the-hem) formed in the same manner by a coalescence of the 
determinative with the old pronoun ? 

We invite the attention of those who have access to writings, especially 
to manuscripts of the age preceding Chaucer, to this conjecture. If the con- 
jecture is well founded, we may expect to find traces of the use of the deter- 
minative with the old forms previous to their complete coalescence, or, at 
least, evidence that the form with the determinative was used at first in 
cases where the pronoun is emphatically or determinately employed. If 
such traces should be discovered, they would leave scarcely a doubt in re- 
gard of the true origin of they, their, them., and both queries suggested by 
Mr. Tyrwhitt might be satisfactorily answered. 

Since writing what precedes, we have found a passage in an old version 



504 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 155. 

of parts of the Evangelists made before the times of Wiclif, which seems fa- 
vorable to our conjecture. The manuscript of this version is described, and 
the passage to which we refer cited in the " Historical Account of the English 
Versions of the Scriptures," prefixed to Bagster's Hexapla, p. 8. The writer 
of the translation in the portion given in the Hexapla, uses hem for them ; 
and hii invariably for they, except in the following sentence : " And hii that 
were sent thei were of Phariseus." Is not the thei here substituted for hii 
because the pronoim is used determinately ? 

Anomalies ln" the Use of Me, Us, Him, &c. — (12) In vulgar usage 
me is treated as a sort of "indifferent form " (to use the term adopted 
by Dr. Latham), like moi in French. Like moi^ it is employed by the 
uneducated^ whenever they have occasion to use the pronoun of the 
first person singular in any other way, except as immediately accom- 
panied by the verb to which it serves as subject. It is used in the 
predicate in such expressions as these : Who is there ? The answer 
of the uneducated class to this is invariably. Me, or It is me^ like the 
French, Cest moi. Who did that? It was me. It is also by the 
same class used as subject, when its verb is suppressed, as in compari- 
sons : Re is wiser than me, instead of the form of expression recog- 
nised as good English by the educated class ; namely. He is wiser 
than I. 

(18) C^-, him., her., them are also employed in similar forms of ex- 
pression, where the educated employ the nominative form of these 
words. This is, and has been for ages the current usage of the un- 
learned, wherever our language is spoken ; and, had it not been for 
the general study of the Latin language, it would long since, we sus- 
pect, have been the current usage of aU classes. 

(14) There are some forms of expression still retained in what is 
considered pure grammatical English, which may be regarded as re- 
mains of this unlearned colloquial usage, not yet eradicated from the 
written language by the prevalence of classical constructions, or, per- 
haps, because of a casual coincidence with the classical forms of ex- 
pression. Such are the exclamations. Ah me! Me miserable., &c. 
Some of these may have been real accusatives or datives completing 
some word now suppressed, or they may be in some instances forms 
introduced by the learned in imitation of Latin idioms ; but some of 
them, we think, can be most readily accounted for, by considering 



(12) Eepeat what is said of the employment of me by the uneducated classes. 

(13) What of the words us, Mm, &c., and of the extent of this usage? 

(14) Eepeat what is said in reference to the supposed retention of some vestiges of the 
colloquial usage of the uneducated. 



§ 155.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 605 

them remains of the dialect of the uneducated, in which me is regarded 
as an " indifferent form." 

(15) We have already observed (§ 143, p. 455, note), that in Anglo- 
Saxon, when a substantive and participle are used absolutely, the 
substantive is of the dative form ; and that some might be disposed to 
explain such expressions, as "us dispossessed," in the following lines 
of Milton by reference to this Anglo-Saxon construction. 

" This inaccessible high strength, the seat 
Of Deity Supreme, us dispossessed^ 
He trusted to have seized." 
We need scarcely repeat the caution, that such constructions (how- 
ever accounted for) are not to be imitated, since there is no tendency 
in the present age towards such imitation. 

(16) The word s^Z/" plural selves is combined with some of the per- 
sonal, perhaps with some of the possessive pronouns, for the purpose of 
giving them greater emphasis. (17) The compound pronouns thus 
formed are myself^ thyself^ himself^ herself^ itself^ and the plural forms, 
ourselves^ yourselves^ themselves. These words serve tlie functions 
both of nominatives and accusatives. (18) In the function of accusa- 
tives they are generally used in a reflexive sense, referring back to the 
subject of the proposition ; as, / hurt myself. Myself here refers back 
to the pronoun of the same person used as the subject. In such cases 
the agent and the recipient of the action expressed by the verb are 
the same individual, Cato hilled himself ; The man drought that ca- 
lamity on himself. In the last example himself i^ used to form a noun 
with a preposition complement to the verb hrought. Still it refers re- 
flexively to the name of the agent, to " the man^"* which is subject of 
the proposition.* 

* The use of the plural form of the pronoun of the first person 
where only an individual is intended to be indicated, is common in our 
language, especially in royal proclamations, in periodicals of all kinds when 
the editor speaks of himself, and in public speaking. This usage has arisen 
partly from the desire of writers and speakers to give more authority to what 
they say by representing it as a declaration emanating from the united wis- 
dom of numbers, as in a royal proclamation from the sovereign aided by his 
council ; or from a real or affected modesty, which shrinks from individual 
responsibility, or from giving offence by appearance of egotism. This latter 

(15) Repeat the remarks in reference to a constraction found in Milton. 

(16) What is said in reference to the word self? (17) Enumerate the compound pro- 
nouns formed with this word, and tell what functions these compounds serve. (18) "What 
ie said of their use in the function of accusatives ? 



506 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 155. 

(19; We have said that these compound pronouns of the first per- 
son perform the functions both of nominatives and accusatives. But 
we do not think that it is accordant with good or with general usage 
to employ them as subject noun of a proposition. We think they are 
rarely employed in any other way as nominatives save in ccmnection 
with another pronoun or noun which is the direct nominative of the 
verb and to which they serve to give emphasis, being appended to it 
as a sort of apposition. Such expressions as " ^Myself did it," " Them- 
selves brought their misfortunes on them," &c., though sometimes used, 
appear to us not merely inelegant, but unsanctioned by current usage, 
either of the educated or uneducated classes. 

(20) Some grammarians have considered the word self^ when added 
to the genitive case of the personal pronouns (or to the possessive pro- 
nouns, if we choose so to call them), a noun, and when added to the 
accusative case of the pronouns of the third person, him, her, it, 
THEM, as an adjective. (21) Sele or sylf seems to have been regard- 
ed by our Anglo-Saxon ancestors as performing, in all these com- 
pounds, the function of a noun in apposition ; or, at any rate, the 
same function in them all, whether that of a noun in apposition or of 
an adjective. (22) They attached this word to all the cases of the 
several personal pronouns, and inflected it to suit the case to which it 
was attached. For example, they used icsylf => Iself; genitive, mix- 
BTLEES = of myself ; plural, westlfe = weselves ; genitive, urestlfea 
=0/" ourselves. (23) In modern English we have retained only a part 
of these forms. All the nominatives compounded with self have 
fallen into disuse, except itself for Jiitself either nominative or accu- 



piu'pose is often more effectually secured by resorting to the third person 
and presenting the author's own sentiments, as the sentiments entertained 
by those around him, using such forms of expression as, " It is thought ;" 
"Some think;" "Many here think," &c. But these are all rhetorical con- 
trivances, and the explanation of them scarcely belongs to the department 
of the grammarian. As we employ We for I, and You for Thou, we substitute 
also Our self and Yourself for Myself and Thyself. ( O^i/rself has almost fallen 
into disuse.) Here whilst the pronoun of the first and second person assumes 
the plural form, the word Self remains singular, indicating that a eingle 
individual is represented by the compound sign, 

(19) What is said of the employment of these compotind pronouns as subject nouns ? 

(20) How do some grammarians consider the word self? (21) How does it seem to have 
been regarded in Anglo-Saxon usage ? (22) How did they attach this word to pronouns, 
and to what cases? (23) What forms used in the Anglo-Saxon have fallen into disuse, and 
what is said in reference to those which have been retained ? 



§ 155.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 507 

sative. The forms retained with the exception of ourselves {ourself)^ 
and yourselves {yourself}^ were, in our opinion, either datives or accusa- 
tives; namely, myself^ in Anglo-Saxon mesylf^ dative or accusative; 
thyself^ Anglo-Saxon thesylf^ dative or accusative ; himself^ Anglo- 
Saxon Jiimsylf^ dative ; herself^ Anglo-Saxon Mresylf^ a dative. Them- 
selves is also, obviously, a dative or accusative, though the word them 
is not Anglo-Saxon. Our and your in the words ourselves and your- 
selves seem to be either genitives or possessive pronouns. 

(24) The fact that himself and themselves (obviously formed by 
the union of a dative or accasative of the pronoun of the third person 
with the word self) are employed as nominatives for all purposes, ex- 
cept the great purpose of serving as the direct subject of a verb, may, 
perhaps, be accounted for in the same way, as we account for the 
use of me and us, him and tJiem among the uneducated for similar 
purposes. The only difference in the two cases is perhaps this, that, in 
regard of the compounds of self the usage of the uneducated has be- 
come the universal usage, while, in reference to the simple pro- 
nouns, this common usage has been opposed and rejected by the edu- 
cated. 

Queries. — Has the Norman use of woi, toi^ lui, as " indifferent 
forms," led to the use of me, us, you, as indifferent forms ; and 
has this use afterwards extended to him and them, himself SLud them- 
selves, though so distinctly marked by form as oblique cases? Are 
there any traces of this " indifferent " usage of any of these forms be- 
fore the Norman times ? 

(25) We may add here a remark on the pronoun one which we 
have ali-eady noticed in § 30 : 17. 

This word is entirely distinct from the numeral one. Though the 
two words are identical in sound, and are represented by the same 
letters in the written language, they are totally dissimilar in every 
thing else — in meaning, in etymology, and as to the source from which 
we have received them. One, the numeral is of Anglo-Saxon origin ; 
the other one, whether we call it noun or pronoun, is apparently of 
Norman origin, and the same with the present French indefinite pro- 
noun on. If it has connection with any Anglo-Saxon word in our lan- 
guage, it is with MAN, not with the numeral one. The French on is 
generally admitted to be a corruption of homme from the Latin homo 
hoMims, which is again generally admitted to be a form made from 

(24) How may we, perhaps, account for the use of himself and themselves to perform 
certain functions of the nominative case ? 

(25) Repeat the substance of what is said of the pronoun one. 



508 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 156. 

the root man. The root is more clearly exhibited in the word Auma-nus 
formed from homo. The Germans still use the word man for the same 
purpose for which the French employ on^ and for which we (less fre- 
quently) employ one. 

(26) Let the learner observe that this word 07ie has both a plural 
form, and a genitive form regularly made. " I have commanded 
my sanctified ones^ I have also called my mighty ones.^'' We also say, 
one's reputation ; one's interest^ &c. 

§156. (1) Each of the personal pronouns has, according to most 
of our grammarians, a genitive or possessive case, both of the singu- 
lar and of the plural forms. (2) In the case of all these pronouns, 
except it and he, there are two forms which have been thought to pos- 
sess claims to the distinction of serving as their genitives. The two 
forms, connected with / (at least in significance), are my and mine, 
both evidently formed from me ; with we, our and ours ; with thou, 
THY and thine; with ye or you (but evidently sprung from you), 
your and yours ; with she, her and hees ; and with they, their and 
THEIRS. He has only one genitive or possessive form his, and it only 
one form, its. 

(8) Where two forms occur, some grammarians recognise only 
one of them as genitive of the personal pronoun, and call the other 
forms possessive pronouns. (4) But those who agree in making this 
distinction are not agreed, as to which are genitives of the personal 
or substantive pronouns, and which are the possessive or adjective 
pronouns. (5) The older grammarians generally considered mine-, 
ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, as exclusively genitives, and, conse- 
quently, sudstantives ; and my, our, thy, your, her (except when used 
as an accusative), their, as pronominal adjectives. His and its they 
regarded as performing both functions. (6) Some of the more mo- 
dern grammarians reverse this arrangement. (7) Exceptions might, 
perhaps, be taken to the reasons assigned by both parties for the course 
pursued by them in this matter. (S) We regard the subject of dispute 
as of very small importance, since every genitive performs nearly the 
same function as an adjective. This is plainly seen, when we happen to 

(26) Of what modifications of form is this pronoun one susceptible ? Examples ? 

§ 156, (1) What is said in reference to genitives of the personal pronouns ? (2) What of 
the forms connected with each claiming this distinction? 

(3) What course is pursued by some grammarians, where double forms occur? (4) Are 
the grammarians agreed which form is genitive, &c.? (5) Describe the course pursued gen- 
erally by the older gi-ammarians. (C) Do all the modern grammarians acquiesce? (7) 
What remark is made in reference to the course pursued by both parties ? (8) Eepeat the 
substance of the reasons assigned for considering this dispute or difference between the 



§ 156.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. POSSESSIVES. 509 

possess an adjective formed from a nonn, or an adjective of similar 
meaning, though not of the same derivation. Thus, in Latin, hominis 
natura^ and natura liumana ; in English, a parent's fondness^ and ^ja- 
rental fondness. Here the genitives and the adjectives formed from 
common roots perform functions scarcely distinguishable, at least, in 
many cases. To the same purpose w^e might adduce such examples as 
the following : Ms father's mansion.^ his paternal mansion ; a })rother''s 
love., brotherly love; "Agamemnoniae phalanges," Agamemnonis phalan- 
ges ; 'E/cro'peos x'^'^'^^^ "EKTopos x^Tcoy. We do not allege that these 
double forms of expression are always exactly of the same import, 
or always interchangeable, though some of them are in some cases 
manifestly interchangeable. We mean only to show the identity, 
or, at least, close similarity of the functions of genitives of nouns 
and of adjectives. (9) To distinguish the genitive case of a perso- 
nal pronoun from a possessive adjective formed from that pronoun, by 
its function in language, is therefore both a difficult and an unprofit- 
able task. 

Dr. K. Webster (as quoted in Well's Eng. Gram., p. 74) makes the fol- 
lowing observation in reference to this subject. " That mine, thine, yours, 
&G., do not constitute a possessive case, is demonstrable ; for they are con- 
stantly used as the nominatives to verbs, and as objectives after verbs and 
prepositions." " Constantly used," we presume is only a dashing way of 
saying can be used. But even making this allowance, Dr. Webster's argu- 
ment proves too much, as may be seen by comparing the following forms 
of expression, which are all equally in accordance with the settled usages of 
speech. My friend and I bought each a pair of horses ; his are bays, mine 
are grays ; his surpass mixe in beauty, mine surpass his in speed ; he gave a 
larger price for his, than I gave for mine. Compare with this the follow- 
ing : My friend and I bought, <fec., as before ; my friend's are bays, (fee. ; 
mine surpass my friend's; I woidd give a larger price for mine, than for my 
friend's. If it is " demonstrable " from the fact, that they can be used " as 
the nominatives to verbs, and as objectives after verbs and prepositions," 
" that mine, thine, (fee, do not constitute a possessive case," what shall we say 
of the wovdi friend's in the above forms of expression ? {See § 75 : 14, e^ seq.) 
The argument from the functions of mine, ours, (fee, is, we think, decidedly 
more favorable to the arrangement of the old grammarians, than to that 
adopted by Drs. Webster, Latham, (fee. 

To prove from their /orm, that any of these sets of pronouns are genitives 
or not genitives of the pronouns which correspond with them in person and 



grammarians of little importance. (9) "What is said of the attempt to distinguish the geni- 
tive ease of the personal pronoun from a possessive pronoun f 



510 STRUCTURE OF LAX &U AGE. [§156. 

number, is eqnallv difficult, since none of tliem hare the regular inflection of 
the genitive case. Ours, yours, hers, theirs, have the appearance of genitires; 
but, if thej are genitives, they cannot be pi-OTed from their form to be the 
genitives of we, ye or yoii, she and they. They are, manifestly, not formed 
from these Tvords; but from the genitives or possessive adjectives (which- 
ever we may choose to call them) our, your, her and their. If we have re- 
coui"se to the Anglo-Saxon, it will not extricate us eooipletely from the diffi- 
culty. It will, however, show that the forms rain, thin, ure, <fee., which 
are given in the grammars as the genitive cases of ic, thu, ice, <fce., are sus- 
ceptible of all the variations of gender, case, and number, like other ad- 
jectives. 

"We think, that the best way to treat these pronouns is to class them all 
of both forms as determinative adjectives formed from the personal pro- 
nouns (as the words which answer to them are classed in the grammars of 
all the languages of Southern Europe, derived from the Latin), and then in- 
dicate the distinct purposes for which they are employed, or distinct occa- 
sions on which the different forms are used. This we have done already. 
{See § 75.) 

We may notice here that in ancient times, and, perhaps, sometimes at 
present in the solerun st^de, 'irdne and thine are used instead of my and thy 
before a noun commencing with a vowel sound; "Mine iniquity," "Mine 
hour," "Mine eye," " Thine eye," etc. 

The possessive pronouns, especially those of the first order (as we may 
call my, our, thy, your^ her, tfcc, for the sake of distinction), are often accom- 
panied by the adjeclive owx, for the pm*pose of greater emphasis; thus, 
"Mine own life," "Thine own person" (in these examples 7/ime and ^A??^ 
are used for my and thy, because omn commences with a vowel sound ; see 
preceding remark), "Our own power," "Tour own nation," "His own 
head," "Their own things," drc. 

We may notice here the fact that in the English language the possessive 
pronouns of the third -person singular agree in gender with the noun which 
they represent, not with the noun which they modify, as in Latin and the mo- 
dern languages of the South of Europe. This may be, otherwise, expressed 
as foUows ; the possessive pronouns of the third person agree in gender with 
the name of the possessor, not with the name of that which is possessed. 
Tlius in French son pere means either his father or her father ; sa mere, 
either his mother or her mother. In this particular case our language has the 
advantage as regards perspicuity. His or her carries our mind directly to the 
person represented, and in some cases prevents ambiguity ; and even where 
there is no danger of this the construction is more clear and lucid. The 
change of form, as in French, <tc. according to the gender and number of 
the modified noun secures no advantage, where (as in that languasre, as well as 
in our own) the possessive is placed always immediately before the modified 
noun. 



§ 15 v.] REMARKS ON THE GENDERS. 511 

§ 157. Additional Remarks on the Genders. — This classification of nouns 
is a very important matter in the grammar of some languages — a subject 
which demands much attention and much study, on the part of all who 
wish to speak or write these languages with propriety. But, as regards 
English grammar, it is a matter of very little importance. In the Greek 
and Latin, and also in all the languages of the South of Europe derived from 
the Latin (and in most of the Teutonic dialects), adjectives assume a different 
termmation according to the gender as well as the number of the noun 
which they complete. And, besides, where the nouns, as in Greek, Latin, Ger- 
man, have terminations for different cases the adjectives have case termina- 
tions also. That the adjective must agree with the substantive which it 
qualifies, or renders determinate, in gender, number and case, is an expres- 
sion full of meaning in those languages. But in English we have no change 
of termination in our adjectives for such purposes. Were it not for the three 
forms of the personal pronoun of the third person, he, she, it, their posses- 
sive forms and their compounds with self (see § 155: 16. et seq.), even the 
mention of the genders would be superfluous in teaching English grammar. 
In this pronoun we have, as we have seen, a distinct singular form for the 
male sex, for the female sex, and for things without sex, or of which the sex 
is not intended to be discriminated. And to use these pronouns correctly, 
we must have regard to the classification in reference to sex ; that is, to the 
genders of nouns. 

In the Latin, Greek and German languages, there are tliree genders or 
classes of nouns, but the arrangement of the nouns under these classes is not 
precisely the same as in English, In the masculine gender or class in these 
languages all the males are arranged, and from this circumstance the class 
takes its name, masculine gender, that is, class of males. But with the moles 
many names of things without sex are arranged in the same gender, that is 
in the same class. In making this arrangement, or, in other words, in apply- 
ing adjectives of the masculine rather than of the feminine or neuter form 
to nouns, those who used these languages were guided either by some notion 
that the things represented by these nouns participated of masculine quali- 
ties, or by the mere similarity of termination. In the feminine gender or 
class, were arranged in like manner the names of all females ; from which 
circumstance the appellation feminine ; and together with these many 
other names of objects neither male nor female. In the third class 
called the neuter gender (that is the class of neither males nor females), 
were arranged the names of the residue of things without sex. In the 
languages derived from the Latin, the neuter gender is omitted (in 
other words, adjectives have no neuter form) and all nouns are arranged 
under the masculine, or feminine gender. In all these languages, these 
classes of nouns have received their appellation (not because they in- 
clude the masculine class, males exclusively, and the feminine class, females 
exclusively, but) from the noblest and most distinguished portion of the ob- 



512 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 15 '7. 

jects represented by the nouns arranged under these classes respectively. 
The masculine is so called from containing all the names of males (that is 
of all animals discriminated as males), the feminine from containing all the 
names of females. 

It may here be observed that many grammarians have perplexed them- 
selves and their readers by insensibly confounding gender with sex, or at 
least, attaching to the term gender, ideas which belong only to sex. Some 
have even thought it necessary to make an apology for the impropriety sup- 
posed to be implied in the expression neuter gender ; though there is really 
no impropriety whatever in the form of expression, correctly interpreted, 
consequently, no need of an apology. Those who introduced in Latin 
grammar the term genus, meaning sort or kind (from which we have in 
French, genre, meaning also sort or kind, and in English, gender), attached no 
conception to the word inconsistent with the notion of a gejius neutrwn, a 
neuter class or class of neuters, that is, of names of objects which are neither 
masculine nor feminine, — neither male nor female. The same may be said 
of the comynon gender, (recognised in some of the grammars of the ancient lan- 
guages), which includes those names sometimes applied to a male, sometimes 
to a female, as for example, the nouns parent, cousin, friend, (fee. in English. 

The expression common gender has been ignorantly and presumptuously 
called a solecism. If we have a clear conception of what the ancient gram- 
marians meant by gender, we can easily perceive the perfect propriety of 
the expression common gender — that is, a class of names common to males 
and females — as well as of the expression neuter gender. But with the fol- 
lowing definitions laid down (and, apparently, tacitly assented to, when not 
expressed in words), "Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 
sex," and " Gender is the distinction of sex," it is not strange that the notion 
of a neuter and of a common gender should present insuperable difficulties 
and incongruities. This definition, if closely examined, will be found to in- 
volve not only a total misconception of the meaning of the term gender, as em- 
ployed by the old grammarians, but an absurd (not to say ridiculous) asser- 
tion, whatever we may understand by the word gender. Of what could it be 
asserted with propriety, that it is the distinction of sex ! If we could find 
such a thing, what business has it among the terms of grammar ? From this 
absurd definition, what could be expected to follow but confusion and in- 
consistency in every matter of detail founded upon it ? ISTo wonder that it 
was thought necessary to censure the old grammarians, or to apologize for 
them, when they were supposed to talk of a neuter " distinction of sex /" and 
a common " distinction of sex /" The old gentlemen knew, we think, much 
better what they said, and whereof they affirmed, than their inconsiderate 
critics. 

Many other definitions of gender, though not chargeable with the same 
absurdity as those already noticed, yet afford evidence that their authors la- 
bored, less or more, under the influence of a similar misconception of the 



§ 157.] REMARKS ON THE GENDERS, 513 

sense of this very simple term ; simple, we mean, as it was evidently under- 
stood by those who first introduced it into grammar. " Grammatical gender 
points out the sex, or the absence of gex." This assertion might with more 
propriety be made of the masculine, feminine, and neuter terminations of 
adjectives in Latin, Greek, and most of the modern languages, or of such 
terminations appended to a noun as distinguish the female occupant of an 
office, station, &c., from the male occupant : the termination ess, for exam- 
ple, in English, as abbot, a male head of an abbey ; abbess, a female head of 
an abbey ; prince, princess, (fee. The same may be said of the following : 
" Gender, in grammar, is an alteration generally in the endings of words, to 
mark distinction of sex." " Gender in grammar, a difference in words to 
express distinction of sex." — Webster's Diet. The two following definitions 
are still more faulty: " Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in 
regai'd to sex." " Gender is the distinction of objects in regard to sex." 
Whatever gender may be, whilst it is recognised as a term of grammar, it 
has reference to words, to the signs of objects, and not to objects themselves. 
To say that gender is a modification of objects, or a distinction of objects, is 
therefore altogether irrelevant. This is the old and very common error of 
confounding words and objects — things and the names of things. 

Most modern writers on grammar have taken care not to commit them- 
selves by giving a direct definition of gender. They have dodged the ques- 
tion, what is gender ? This was perhaps a prudent course, especially if 
these writers labored in any degree under the apparently very general 
misconception of this matter, originating, as we think, in confounding the 
meaning of the terms sex and gender. No rational definition could be ex- 
pected till this misconception was completely cleared away. 

Another subject has generally, in our English grammars, been treated 
under the head of Gender, though it has connection rather with the original 
structure of single words than with the changes which they undergo in 
order to perform their grammatical functions, and might, without impro- 
priety, be wholly omitted in this place. In the case of some ofiices or sta- 
tions, which may be held both by men and women, and in the case of the 
more conspicuous animals, there is a separate name for the separate sexes. 
These names are sometimes formed, the feminine from the masculine, by the 
addition of a syllable or some change of the termination, generally by the 
syllable ess ; as, priest, priestess or female priest ; prince, princess, <fee. Some- 
times the words which indicate the female are less clearly connected with 
the male form, and sometimes altogether distinct. According to the custom 
of the grammarians, we subjoin a list of some of the masculine and feminine 
forms which most frequently recur. 

List of Masculine Names which have a Feyninine Form in ess. 
Abbot, Abbess. Baron, Baroness. 

Actor, Actress. Benefactor, Benefactress. 

33 



514 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 158. 



Count, 


Countess. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Buke, 


Duchess. 


Peer, 


Peeress, 


Emperor, 


Empress. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Prince, 


Princess. 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Prophet, 


Prophetess. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Shepherd, Shepherdess. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Songster, 


Songstress. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Viscount, 


Yiscountess. 


Some names 


have a feminine form 


in ix ; as, 




Administrator, Administratrix. 


Testator, 


Testatrix. 


Executor, 


Executrix 


Director, 


Directrix. 



"We give no list of those names for males and females which are entirely 
distinct inform; as, husband, wife; father, mother ; brother, sister; horse, 
mare, &c., since the fact that these different names are given to animals of 
different sexes has nothing to do with the structure of language, nothing to 
do with grammar. All this is to be learnt from dictionaries or vocabularies, 
not from treatises on construction. 

§ 158. The Articles. — The two determinative adjectives an or a, 
and THE have been called very generally by English grammarians the 
definite and the indefinite article. Under this name these two words 
have been raised to the dignity of forming a separate class by them- 
selves, and liave been placed in tiie foremost rank among the parts of 
speech. Yet, so far are these words from being entitled to so much 
consideration from the indispensable importance of the functions which 
they perform in speech, that there are many highly polished lan- 
guages — amongst these the Greek — which possess no separate distinct 
word equivalent to our an or a — the (so styled) indefinite article ; and 
the Latin has no word exclusively used to perform the functions either 
of the definite or of the indefinite article. 

To the mere English scholar the term article applied to the words 
an and the conveys no meaning whatever. "When we have traced 
it to articulus in Latin, and ascertained that this was employed to 
translate ap'^pov — the name applied by the Greek grammarians to a 
Avord nearly equivalent to what our grammarians have called the de- 
finite article.^ and learned that these Latin and Greek words mean a 
joint, yvQ are still far from unravelling the mystery which hangs about 
tliis strange term. "Why a and the should be called joints or hinges., 
and joints or hinges in contradistinction to all other words in the lan- 
guage, remains still to be explained. 

The application of this name to the Greek determinative 6, 37, to., 
is accounted for in the following manner : The Greek grammarians 



§ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 515 

originally gave the appellation ap^ipa (joints) to two words in connection, 
which they afterwards distinguished by the names of the prepositive 
and postpositive articles or joints. These two words tal'en together 
serve indeed as joints or hinges of language, and have been named by 
the Greeks not inappropriately. One of these is the word above men- 
tioned, the prepositive article 6, ?;, to, Avhich alone retains this name, 
though it has no claim to it, save what it obtained through its alliance 
Avith the postpositive. This latter (the postpositive article) is what 
has been commonly called the relative 2)Tonoun., equivalent to our loho.^ 
which and that. To this the name joint was appropriately given. 
Some modern grammarians (whom in this we willingly follow) still 
call it by a name of nearly the same import — the Conjunctive Pronoun. 
We may readily comprehend the reason of giving the name joint to 
the relative or conjunctive pronoun and the determinative equivalent 
to THE, if w^e consider attentively the Compound Proposition with 
Adjective Accessory already described (§ 111). For example: The 
man who promised to assist us disa2?pointed our hopes. Here the word 
who serves as a joint to connect the adjective accessory, promised to 
assist us, with the word man, which it modifies or completes. In per- 
forming this function it is assisted by the determinative sign the used 
before the noun modified. 

The intimate relation of the article and conjunctive pronoun in 
Greek served to render the reference of the latter with its accessory 
to the former and its noun more striking. The article and relative in 
that language resemble each other in sound, are of the same family, 
or rather varieties of the same word, and seem to have been used indis- 
criminately, in ancient times, as conjunctive pronouns. 'O aVSpcoTros 
Of, The man who, was a form almost like Which man who, or The 
man the. If this kind of expression were now admissible with us, it 
would evidently serve to establish the closest relation between the 
noun man and the accessory introduced by who. This is no imaginary 
case, as regards the use of the article the in our language. The, like 
the Greek article, was currently used both as article and relative in 
the Anglo-Saxon. The determinative use, we suspect, as we shall 
have occasion to say in another place, was in both languages the ear- 
liest and the original use out of which grew the relative or conjunc- 
tive use. In other words, we suppose all relatives to be determina- 
tives used in a peculiar mode. < But be this as it may, the mode of 
writing accessory adjective propositions in Anglo-Saxon was to intro- 
duce the accessory by the word the, whilst the noun modified by the 
accessory was preceded by the proper case of the determinative se, seOy 



516 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 158. 

tTiaet^ "whicli seems to be the same word, at least the same root sub- 
jected to flection. The only forms which are exceptions are se, and 
seo. All the other forms of all genders, numbers and cases, appear to 
be formed from the root the. 

Thus viewed these words might well be compared to a double 
joint — Si p7'epositi'D6 and post2)ositive article to connect or lock the word 
which the one preceded and the other followed with the clause in 
which the latter performed some prominent function. 

In many cases the explanatory proposition and postpositive ar- 
ticle came to be suppressed, because readily suggested to the mind of the 
hearer or reader by the drift of the discourse. In such cases the ar- 
ticle may be considered as indicating such suppression — as warning 
us of the Elhpsis. Let us take as an example the following words from 
the first chapter of Genesis : " God said. Let there be hght ; and there 
was light. And God saw the light, that it was good." Here the 
word light is twice used without any determinative, aud the third 
time with one. " God saw the light," that is the light loJiich has teen 
just mentioned — the light which he had called into existence. Some ac- 
cessory proposition is evidently implied, and the determinative sign 
the indicates (to all who understand the usage of our language) that 
the light referred to is the same that has been already mentioned. 

What we have said accounts sufiiciently for the ancient Greek 
grammarians calHng this determinative and the conjunctive pronoun 
taken in connection articles or joints. But it can scarcely vindicate 
the conduct of their successors, when, having given a distinct 
name to the form of the determinative which, in time, came to be 
used exclusively to perform the conjunctive function, they gave the 
name oi joint to that form which no longer served alone as ajoint^ 
but only occasionally lent its aid to the jointing or conjunctive word. 
Much less can these historical facts serve as a just excuse for conti- 
nuing to call the determinative the, without any allusion to its co- 
operation or original connection with the conjunctive pronoun, by 
this inappropriate and (to the mere English scholar) unintelligible name; 
less still can they justify the application of this name to the word an 
aud its equivalents in the modern languages. This practice, we be- 
lieve, is confined at present to our own language. The grammars of 
most modern languages recognise only one article. Yet, if, as ori- 
ginally, the connection with the conjunctive pronoun were recognised 
in applying the name article, an might set up an equal claim with the 
to the appellation of prepositive article. In the assertions, a man who 
always does to others^ as he would wish others to do to him, is a good 



§ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 51 7 

citizen^ and, The man who always^ &c., a and the in connection with 
the conjunctive who perform functions of a similar nature. But this 
function seems to be merely to indicate a lesser (in the casg of a) or 
greater (in the case of the) degree of determinateness, or, in the lan- 
guage of the common grammars, to point out the word to which the 
conjunctive refers and to which it joints the accessory proposition. 
But THIS and that, ant, such, all, in fact most determinatives per- 
form the very same function. 

There seems not a shadow of apology for considering these two 
little words as forming a distinct part of speech, or division of the 
signs of our language, aad then entering on the vain search for some 
function pertaining exclusively to them, by which they may be discri- 
minated from all other classes of words. Such a course presents strong 
temptation to the exercise of ingenuity in finding grounds of dis- 
tinction where none actually exist, and, thus, to pervert as well as 
perplex the grammar of the language. Injudicious classification — the 
application, especially, of distinctive names to things which are not 
in fact different (in the aspect in which they are regarded in classifying 
them), naturally leads to false speculation. It is not a sufficient apo- 
logy in such cases to allege that the classification can do no harm, be- 
cause the things classified remain unchanged by the classification. 
The establishment of a class is the implied assertion of a distinctive 
difference — a difference worthy too of the attention of an inquirer. 
Where such difference does not exist, the implication that it exists is 
an error, and may, like other errors, which in themselves appear tri- 
vial, lead in the end to more important errors. 

If we wish to account for the fact that the articles have been 
placed foremost in the list of the parts of speech^ we must look for the 
explanation, as 4)efbre, to the Greek grammarians. These grammarians 
very properly placed the nouns at the head of their classification of 
words, and finding it convenient to indicate the genders of these nouns 
by prefixing the article which accorded with them in gender, they 
were led to give the declension of the article 6, J7, to^ the first place 
in their treatises on language. The article is still used in our Greek 
lexicons to indicate the genders of nouns, instead of using, as we do in 
Latin dictionaries and those of the modern languages, abbreviations for 
inasGuUne^ feminine and neuter. 

The most intelligent of our modern grammarians are unanimous 
in the decision, that it is impr'oper to consider the articles a distinct 
class of words, or part of speech. See Dr. Robinson's Translation of 
Buttman's Greek Grammar, pp. 120, 121, note, &c., &c. 

The Determinative An or A. — Contrary to what is asserted, or 



518 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 158. 

implied in most of our grammars, the original form of this word is an^ 
and «^ is a contraction. It is not strictly correct to say that " a de- 
comes an before a vowel and a silent 7i." We should rather say that 
an becomes a before a syllable beginning with a consonantal sound. 

A is employed defore words commencing with a consonantal 
sound; that is, 1st, before all words commencing with the sonnds re- 
presented by the letters called consonants, in the written language ; 
2d, before words commencing with an aspirated 7i, as, a Jiand^ a ham- 
mer^ &c. ; 3d, before all words commencing with what is called the 
long sound of -z^ — equivalent to the sound given to the combination of 
the semivowel y with the vowels ou in the word you^ or in the word 
yout\ as, a unioi\ a university^ (fee. On the contrary, before u 
short, or purely xocal^ as well as before the other vowels, and before 
silent ^, an is employed ; as, an uncle^ an animal^ an Tiour^ &c. 

An is perhaps the weakest of the determinative adjectives — of all 
the determinatives the least determinative.^ 

"When used with a noun it indicates that a single individual of the 
species, of which the noun is a general sign, is intended to be desig- 
nated. Thus the word man used alone means the whole species, or 
race of men, as in the words of the poet, " The ]iro'pcT study ofman^ 
Tcind is max." But a man indicates a single individual of the race. 
The a prefixed shows, 1st, that we do not intend to include a whole 
class ; nor 2d, a number of the class, but a single individual of a class, 
and " farther it saith not." What particular individual is meant is left 
wholly undetermined. 

The word an with its contract form a descends to lis from the Anglo- 
Saxon an, or ane, the word expressive of U7iity in that language, and from 
which we have, with a little variation of sound and orthogp-aphy, our mod- 
ern sign of unity, the numeral one. Ane or ae to express unity is a form 
still extant in the Scottish dialect, httle differing in orthography and pro- 
nunciation from the Anglo-Saxon sign of unity, on the one hand, and our 
modern English determinative, on the other. Indeed, an more nearly re- 
sembles the Anglo-Saxon numeral inform than one, Avhich corresponds exact- 
ly with the parent word in sense. 

In the present usage of our language, ax and oxe agree in this, that 
both imply individuality. But they differ in this, that an implies, as 
we have akeady said, that an individual of a class is indicated, as dis- 



* Hence many of our grammarians have been led to commit the solecism 
of classing an among the definitives, and then calling it the indefinite ar- 
ticle — the indefinite definitive ! 



§ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 519 

tinguished from the whole class of which the noun is the common ap- 
pellation ; whereas one implies that a single individual is meant, as dis- 
tinguished from a numter of individuals of the same class. The force 
of the two words and their distinct functions can be most clearly ex- 
hibited by the aid of examples. For this purpose we present the fol- 
lowing questions, with suitable answers : Can a man perform that 
piece of icorJc f JSFo ; 'hut a hoese caw perform it. Can one man per- 
form tliat piece of worli ? No ; lut two men can perform it ? In the 
first question the emphasis is on the word man^ in the second on the 
determinative word one. The inquiry in the first case is, whether 
man (a human being) can do the work ; in the latter, whether one 
man or more than one are necessary to perform it. 

It will be seen from this that the employment of the determinative an 
(differing in form from the numeral one) introduces a convenient distinction 
in our language. Yet, in languages which employ the numeral for both 
purposes, no peculiar inconvenience is experienced, since a variation of empha- 
sis is sufficient (in spoken language) to mark the discrimination of meaning. 
For example, the words tin homme (in French), by laying a slight stress of 
voice on un, imply one man ; without this stress, and giving preponderant 
force to homme, a ma7i. 

We may here notice a use of the word one resembling that of the indefinite 
(more properly, less definite) article, in such expressions as " One Simon, a 
tanner," " One Mnason of Cyprus," Ac. This use, certainly, more neai-ly re- 
sembles that of the article an, than the common use of the numeral. It may 
be doubted whether this word one is not the indeterminate pronoun described 
in § 155 : 25. It strongly indicates indeterminateness, and hence is often 
employed contemptuously to insinuate a reproach of obscurity, want of no- 
toriety and social importance. The word is, we believe, in this use em- 
ployed only with the names of persons. Thus used it is equivalent to the 
Greek indefinite pronoun riSy and the Latin guidam. 

The word any is of kindred meaning as well as of kindred origin 
Avith an. It is formed from the Anglo-Saxon numeral ane or aen, with 
the addition of the aflSx «^, and was originally written aenig.^ meaning one 
nice. This word may be regarded perhaps as more loosely determinative 
than an. Though originally implying unity, it is, unlike an, often em- 
ployed before plural nouns. We can say any men., as well as any man. 
We may observe the distinction between an or a, any and some in the 
following examples : Can a hoy do that f JsFo ; hut a onan can. 
Can ANY hoy do that ? JSFo ; hut some hoys can. Some is commonly 
in present usage employed with plurals, anciently it was used with 
nouns of the singular form with the force of the Latin aliquis ; as 



520 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 158. 

" Some man will say," &c. ^e have examples of this usage in the 
compo-und words somebody^ something. 

All three words a?i, any^ some^ agree in this that they indicate the 
partition of the class of objects represented by the nouns to Avhich 
they are applied, and that only a part (in the case of an only an indi- 
vidual) is embraced under the expression. If the noun is accom- 
panied by a limiting or descriptive complement, they indicate that only 
a part (an individual in the case of an) of the objects represented by 
the noun so limited is embraced : for example, a icise man^ means an 
individual of the class indicated by the words wise man. It is always 
implied that there are more individuals of the same kind not embraced 
by the expression. 

In this respect an and the other determinatives now mention- 
ed are markedly different from those which we are about to con- 
sider. 

Before passing from an or a, we may remark an apparent excep- 
tion to the assertion that it indicates individuality in the fact that it 
is placed before plural nouns modified by numerals. Thus we say, a 
dozen meii, or a dozen ; a thousand men.^ a hundred, men ; &c. In all 
such cases the word dozen, or hundred, or thousand is regarded as ex- 
pressing a collectixe unit. The proof is at hand. We can equally say, 
one dozen.^ one hundred.^ one thousand.^ &c. 

The Determinative THE. — This word is used before both singular 
and plural nouns to indicate that they are to be taken in a strictly de- 
terminate sense. It indicates that the object or objects represented 
by the noun, as limited either by an expressed or implied modification, 
are embraced in their complete totality. Thus, the man of integrity.^ 
indicates the class waw, as limited by the words of integrity^ in its 
complete totality. If we make any assertion about the man of inte- 
grity, it ought to apply to every individual of this whole class. The 
phrase, a man of integrity., agreeably to what we have said in consi- 
dering an, implies the partition of the class, and that only an indivi- 
dual is embraced in the expression. There are numerous instances in 
which these two forms of expression may be employed indifferentlj^ 
in expressing the same truth. Thus, A man of integrity would not do 
such an action ; and. The man of integrity would not do such an ac- 
tion. These two assertions are nearly equivalent, for, if an individual 
of integrity taken at random would not do a certain action, it is ob- 
vious to infer that the whole class (included under the expression, the 
man of integrity) would not do it. But this is not explicitly declared 
in the assertion. Something is left for the exercise of the hearer's 
judgment — something to be inferred. 



§158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 521 

That the two expressions are not in themselves (without the assist- 
ance of inference) exactly equivalent may be readily discovered by 
attending to similar forms of expression in which the subject matter 
is different. For example, A man wlwm we saio yesterday came to 
my house this morning^ and The man whom we saw yesterday came^ &c. 
In the first of these forms it is indicated, that the man whom we saw 
yesterday is only one of a class — an indefinite individual of a number 
whom we saw ; but, in the latter form, a definite man, about whom 
we have an understanding — whom we both know, as the man whom 
we saw yesterday, is indicated. ' 

"We must, if we wish to understand this subject, guard carefully 
against confounding the function performed by the determinatives 
with the function performed by the more intimate limiting words. 
"VYe believe that the determinative the is never employed in our lan- 
guage except with a noun that is otherwise limited either expressly or 
by implication. The determinative the indicates the fact of such li- 
mitation, the mutual recognition of such limitation by the speaker and 
the party addressed, and further that the object or class of objects re- 
presented by the noun so limited is embraced in its totahty by the ex- 
pression. When some grammarians say that the article the " limits a 
noun and shows how far its signification extends," they seem to con- 
found together the function performed by the determinative and the 
functions performed by the more intimate modifications, expressed or 
implied, which together with the noun taken as a whole compound 
conception come within the determinative influence of the article. It 
is, perhaps, more correct to say that the article is placed before a noun 
because it is already limited, than to say that it is placed before the 
noun for the purpose of limiting it. It rather refers to a limitation 
expressed or implied than expresses one itself, and it thus exercises a 
force similar to that of the relative pronouns. In fact the closest re- 
lation in origin and function exists in most languages between deter- 
minatives and relatives. In some cases the same word, like our that^ 
performs both functions. 

We reiterate, at the hazard of being charged witli repetition, that 
the noun, which is the name of a class, is first limited by what we 
have called its more intimate modifications (descriptive adjectives, ge- 
nitives, &c.), expressed or understood and coming, as is taken for 
granted, within the cognizance of the party addressed ; thus generally 
forming a subclass by means of the limitations, which subclass, it is 
further indicated by the article, is to be taken in its totality. A sub- 
class, we say, is generally formed, but sometimes the determinate ex- 
pression embraces only an individual object limited as above de- 



522 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 158. 

scribed ; that is, the limitation itself implies individuality ; for example, 
the Tcey of my des\ the virtue of temperance^ tJie sun, the earth. Here 
the expressed or implied (as in the case of the sun and the earth) mo- 
dification limits the noun to an individual object. 

For the purposes above described, the determinative the is em- 
ployed before nouns limited by most of the forms of modification of 
v/hich they are susceptible — before nouns modified by a descriptive 
adjective, by a genitive case complement, by noun and preposition 
complement, by an infinitive, and by ,an adjective accessory proposi- 
tion. All common nouns — nouns universally employed as names of 
classes, whether always reckoned and used as conwwn or not — ^if 
restricted by the complements enumerated, when of the singular form 
take either an or the, except they are preceded by some other deter- 
minative. Plural forms stand without a determinative, when the sin- 
gular form would take an. Whether a singular noun modified as 
above shall take an or the^ and whether a plural noun shall take the., 
or stand without a determinative, is to be decided by reference to what 
we have already said. 

We have had occasion to notice that adjectives employed substan- 
tively are always preceded by the determinative the. Such forms of 
expression as the icise, the virtuous, &c., are equivalent to the noun 
men or the nomi persons restricted by the adjectives wise., virtuous, &c. 
Hence they come -within the class of limited nouns mentioned above, 
namely those limited by a descriptive adjective ; and because in such 
expressions a whole class in its totality is indicated, the determinative 
employed is always the, never ax. 

It may be noticed that when a noun is restricted by a genitive 
case, the determinative is used only before the genitive noun, or, per- 
haps, it would be more proper to say, before the whole expression, in- 
cluding the modification ; for example, the Queen'^s palace^ the Presi- 
denfs house. If vre substitute for these the Korman forms of expres- 
sion with a noun and preposition instead of the genitive, the determi- 
native is expressed before both nouns, because both are in fact deter- 
minately used. Thus, the palace of the Queen, the house of the Presi- 
dent. Here palace and house are limited expressly by the accompany- 
ing complements, and Queen and President by implication in a man- 
ner to be now described. 

It must be remembered that nouns are often employed determi- 
nately without being accompanied by any expressed limitation or re- 
striction. Such nouns equally with those which are expressly limited 
take before them the determinative the. Hence we employ the before 
the names of objects of eminence, and of objects which stand alone. 



§ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 523 

the only individuals of their kind in which we are interested ; 
as, the President^ the King^ the Queen^ the Sun^ the Moon^ the 
Earthy &o. Some limiting complement may here be regarded as sup- 
pressed, because it natarally suggests itself to the mind of the party 
addressed. This complement may be any one of those above enu- 
merated. Sometimes several different complements may equally serve 
the purpose. In such cases tlie noun is not less determinate, because 
one or more determinative or limiting circumstances are so well un- 
derstood by speaker and hearer mutually, that it is unnecessary to ex- 
press them in the form of an accessory proposition, or by any other 
form of complement. We employ the determinative also in such ex- 
pressions as, the sciences^ the mathematics^ and before tlie names oi 
many important mechanical inventions, as the jpress^ the steam engine^ 
the ledei\ the wedge^ &c., because all these names are employed de- 
terminately. For similar reasons we use the determinative before the 
singular class names of animals when we intend to designate the spe- 
cies in its totality; for example, the horse^ the dog^ the ox^ the lion, &c., 
meaning the whole kind. The horse is a nohle and useful animal ; 
the dog is faithful to his master, &c. 

A noun often becomes determinate by the fact that it has been al- 
ready employed by the speaker with reference to some individual per- 
son or thing. Hence when a noun under these circumstances is 
repeated, the determinative is used. Here it indicates that the noun 
which it precedes is employed in reference to the same object already 
mentioned, and by this circumstance rendered determinate to the 
hearer. For example, " Two men went up into the temple to pray ; 
the one « Pharisee, and the other a publican. The Pharisee stood and 
prayed," &c. " And the publican, standing afar off, would not lift up so 
much as his eyes unto heaven,'- &c. Here we have first " a Pharisee,^'' 
and '^ a publican'''' — individuals of certain classes, but no farther deter- 
minate. Next we have " the Pharisee,'''' and " the publican^''' because 
now determinate individuals — the same already introduced to the 
hearer's notice, who went up to the temple to pray. As John was 
taking a walk in the park a boy came up to him and entered into con- 
versation with him. They soon after passed near a number of boys, 
who were endeavoring to raise a kite. As they were passing the boy 
exclaimed, &c. Here the boy refers the hearer to the boy who joined 
John in the walk. If we substitute a for tJte, the reference will be to 
some other boy — an indeterminate individual of the group engaged in 
raising the kite. 

JSTouns modified by a noun in apposition never, we think, take the 
determinative the, at least, in consequence of this species of modifica- 



524 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§158. 

tion. The noun placed in apposition, on tlie contrary, very generally 
takes the determinative. The nouns which most commonly take after 
them a noun in apposition are proper names ; for example : Plato^ the 
pMlosopJier ; Cicero^ the orator. In such forms of expression the noun 
in apposition is always preceded by the determinativ^e. When the 
noun appended or apj)08ed is a personal or ofScial title, no determinative 
is employed ; for example : George Washington^ Peesidext of the_ 
United States^ CommajStdee in chief &c. Victoria^ Queen of Great 
Britain^ &c. When the noun expressing an official title is placed be- 
fore the proper name, the article is also generally omitted ; as, General 
Washington.^ President Adams., Queen Victoria.^ &c. But it may be 
doubted whether these are properly examples of apposition. The 
words appended have by general usage become part of the appellation 
of the individuals to whom they are applied, as much so almost as a 
cognomen in the case of private individuals. To the following forms 
of expression, apparently little differing from the last mentioned, we 
customarily prefix the article. The emperor Constantiiie, The emi^eror 
Trajan^ &c. The frigate Constitution. The shij? Albion. The 
steamer Europa., &c. Here frigate., ship., steamer., seem to partake 
more of the nature of apposition, although, contrary to the most usual 
arrangement of the noun in apposition, they are placed before the 
noun which they serve to complete. 

When a noun in apposition com23lement is appended to an abstract 
noun, the usage is the same as when it is appended to a proper name. 
The noun that is completed takes no determinative, at least none on ac- 
count of the complement, and the complement, if of the singular form, 
takes either the determinative an, or the ; and if of the plural form it 
either takes the or takes no determinative, according as it is more or 
less determinately used. Example : Justice., a virtue indispensaMe to 
the stability of every form of government., should be strenuously incul- 
cated and scrupulously practised by all true patriots. Justice., the vir- 
tue most indispensable to the stability of every form of government., &c. 
Examples of a noun of the plural form used in apposition. Justice 
and humanity., the virtues most indispensable., &c. Justice and human- 
ity., virtues whicli highly promote the welfare of states., &c. 

With common or general nouns (as distinct from abstract nouns and 
proper names) we still more rarely employ the noun in apposition com- 
plement, and when we do, the usage, so far as we are aware, is the same 
in regard of the determinatives. Example : Man., the only animal endoioed 
with reason., is., at the same time., the only animal endowed with speech. 

A noun modified by an explicative or epithetic accessory proposition 
never takes the determinative in consequence of this complement. 



§ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINA*riVES. 526 

This fact has already come under our notice (§ 113). There is a close 
analogy between the noun in apposition and the epithetic modification, 
as we have already shown that there is an analogy between the latter 
and the adjective employed as a mere epithet. These modifications do 
not, as we have already said, limit or restrict the noun, or render it 
more determinate. They are not, in fact, a necessary or essential part 
of the proposition in which they are inserted, but something super- 
added for illustration, or, sometimes, merely for ornament. 

The noun in apposition may be expanded into an explicative acces- 
sory : Cicero^ the great oratoi\ was both a statesman and philoso- 
pher., may be expressed more fully, thus, Cicero., who was a great ora- 
tor., was both a statesman., &c. The noun in apposition may, perhaps, 
be regarded as an abbreviated form of the exphcative accessory. 

The same kind of analogy may be traced between the restrictive 
accessory and the other complements which restrict or limit nouns ; 
namely, the genitive case complement, noun in apposition, and limit- 
ing descriptive adjective complement. These latter, as in the case of 
the noun in apposition, seem to be only more compendious methods of 
expressing what is more formally expressed by the restrictive adjective 
accessory. For example : The mansion which belongs to his father., is 
more compendiously expressed by the words. The mansion of his 
father ; more compendiously still by the words. His father'' s mansion ; 
and perhaps yet more compactly by the words. His paternal mansion. 

The determinative the., as we have seen, is prefixed only to nouns 
which are employed in a limited or determinate sense ; but we must 
not conclude from this that it is prefixed to all nouns which are so 
employed. On the contrary, nouns are often, from the nature of the 
objects which they designate, so clearly and so invariably determinate, 
that they need no indication of determinateness. To nouns of this kind 
we do not generally prefix determinatives in our language. 

1. Of this class of nouns are proper names, which, being appropri- 
ated to individuals, admit of no further determination or restriction. 
We might connect with these the personal pronouns, especially of the 
first and second person. The pronouns of the third person and the 
relative or conjunctive pronouns may themselves be regarded as a sort 
of determinatives, or as involving ihQ force., if not sometimes the form 
of a determinative word. 

2. Common nouns, when employed in the whole extent of their 
signification, are completely determinate, and in English generally 
take no article ; as, for example, Man is mortal ; Tea is brought 
from China; Cotton is cultivated in the United States; &c. We 
have already noticed what appears an exception to this usage, in 



526 • STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 158. 

the case of the names of animals, as, the Tiorse^ the ox^ &c. In these 
last examples possibly animal or some such word is implied, which is 
rendered determinate by the name of the species, and so takes the 
article. 

3. Abstract nouns, when employed in the whole extent of their 
signification, are not in our language accompanied by the determinative 
the ; for example: Virtue is immortal; Vice alicays^ sooner or later^ 
produces misery ; &c. But, when we employ abstract nouns in a 
limited sense, or, in other words, restricted by complements, especially 
by the noun and preposition, or the adjective accessory, we prefix the 
determinative sign ; as, for example. The virtue of temperance ; The 
faith which overcomes the world ; " The wisdom that is from above is 
first pure," &c. 

4. The determinative the is, of course, seldom used when any other 
determinative is prefixed to a noun. It would be manifestly absurd to 
employ it in company with an or a, which are used for the express 
purpose of indicating a diflerent and weaker degree of determinateness, 
or with this and that^ which are more emphatic determinatives than 
itself. The article the is never in our language employed in company 
with possessive pronouns, whether placed before the nouns which 
they modify, or employed separately from the noun to which they 
refer. We can neither say. The my looTc^ nor that book is The mine. 
(For the usage of other languages in such cases see the remarks in the 
next note.) Again the article the is not employed, when such words 
as any^ many.^ every ^ such^ &c., are placed before nouns. 

On the contrary, the determinative the is employed before the de- 
terminative same^ and after the determinative all., and sometimes after 
J)oth ; as, for example. The same man ; All the world ; All the men in 
the house; '•''Both the men, between whom the controversy is, shall 
stand before the Lord." 

The determinative the is also frequently prefixed to words limited 
by a numeral ; as, The iico men. This means two definite men about 
whom the speaker and hearer have a mutual understanding ; whereas 
the words two men imply any two men indeterminate except as to 
number. 

The presence or absence of the determinative the affects very mate- 
rially the sense of some words in oar language. For example, wiiat a 
difference between the meanings conveyed by the expressions, Earth 
and The earth; Faith and The Faith ; Thou art man^ Thou art a 
rrLan^ and Thou art the man ? 

Tiie same remark applies to the determinative an or a. For ex- 



§ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 527 

ample : Few and A few ; Litlle and A little. A few implies a positive, 
though small number ; A little., a positive, though small quantity ; but 
Few and Little verge towards the very borders of absolute negation of 
number and quantity respectively. 

" Ah ! little think the gay licentious proud." 
This almost amounts to saying, that they do not think at all. 

Note. — In those languages which have a determinative adjective equiva- 
lent to our determinative the, great diversity prevails as to the extent of its 
application. In English, it is generally omitted whenever the noun is of 
itself determinate without any complement; as in the case of proper 
names, and of abstract nouns used in the whole extent of their signification. 
In the Greek language, on the contrary, the article is often employed with 
proper names, with abstract nouns employed in the whole extent of their 
signification, especially when subjects of propositions, and even with the in- 
finitives of verbs. By prefixing the different forms of the article (which has 
case terminations like nouns and adjectives), the Greeks are enabled to use 
their infinitives in all the various cases which belong to other nouns in their 
language. Hence the infinitive with them performs functions which in 
other languages it cannot conveniently perform. In Latin and English, and 
most other languages, infinitives are rarely employed except as subjects of 
propositions and complements of other verbs — in other words, only in the 
nominative and accusative (or objective) cases. (We have noticed some cases 
in which the infinitive is used in English with the force of a dative or of a 
noun and preposition — the infinitive of purpose, for exap^ple.) In Greek, 
by the help of the case forms of the article, infinitives are employed to per- 
form the functions of genitive and dative (as well as nominative and accu- 
sative cases) functions in Latin generally performed by the gerund, and in 
English also by the gerund or verbal in ing. 

In French and many other modern languages the article is prefixed to 
common nouns taken in their general or most extensive sense, as Vhomme est 
faible, man is weak ; to the names of countries, as la France, France ; to 
abstract nouns employed in the whole extent of their signification, as la 
vertu est aimahle, virtue is amiable ; and to possessive pronouns, when em- 
ployed separately from the nouns to which they refer, as le mie?i, le notre, 
(fee, (in which case it may be regarded as indicating the suppressed noun.) 
In Italian, the article is employed even with the possessive pronouns pre- 
fixed to nouns, il mio libra, my book, literally, the my book. 

The omission of the article in English, and the employment of the article 
in other languages, does not render the noun in the one ease less, or in the 
other case more determinate. The Article adds nothing to the definiteness 
of the expression. The French, tfec, prefix it, because the noun is definitely 
used ; we omit it, because the noun is in its nature invariably definite. The 
use and omission is an idiomatic peculiarity of the respective languages. 



528 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 158. 

The remark, that the article adds Bothing to the definiteness of the ex- 
pression, is apparently applicable, when it is prefixed in our own and in 
other languages, to the names of rivers, mountains, &c., as, the Hudson, the 
Thames, the Tiber, the Seine; the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Alleghanies, (fee. 
But these forms of expression seem to have arisen from the suppression of 
the words river, and mountains respectively. The full expression would be, 
the river Hudson ; the Pyrenees mountains, <fec. Here the determinative is 
appropriately joined with the common nouns, ^^ river'^ and ^'mountains," 
because they are used determinately, being limited by the addition of the 
words Hudson and Pyrenees. 

Perhaps, the use of the determinative with other proper names ; as, for 
instance, the names of countries, or even its use with the proper names of 
individual persons in the Greek language, might be accounted for in a simi- 
lar way. 'O "Eivocpccv, the Xenophon, may have arisen from an abbreviation 
of 'O av7}p 'E^vo<pwv, the man Xenophon. In support of this explanation it 
might be alleged that the Greeks were accustomed to employ the word 
'Ai/?7/), and its plural form ''Kv^p^s, in a manner which appears to the moderns 
redundant ; as in the phrases "Aj/Spes a-rpariwrai, soldiers ; literally men 
soldiers; "'AvSpes, dSeA^oi Kai, irarep^s, brethren and fathers ; literally men 
brethren a.nd {men) fathers. {See § 146. Note, p. 469.) 

When several nouns are connected in the same construction, the 
determinative is often, in English, suppressed before all but the first 
noun ; as, for example, The men., women and children whom he met 
gazed upon hijj-moith wonder ; instead of The men., the women and the 
children., &c. (The same remark applies to the determinative an.) 
When emphasis is intended, the determinative is repeated; and when 
special discrimination is required it must be repeated before each 
noun ; for example, " Cincinnatus, the dictator, and t7ie master of the 
horse marched against the ^Equi." If, in this sentence, the determi- 
native were omitted before "master of the horse," it would, to a per- 
son guided by the mere form of the expression without other know- 
ledge of the fact, appear that the appellations " dictator " and " master 
of the horse " were both intended to apply to Cincinnatus, whereas 
the master of the horse was a distinct person. The article before an 
adjective employed substantively should never be suppressed. It 
would be improper to say, the wise and good., for the wise, and the 
good, if we intend to indicate two distinct classes of men. If we mean 
one class of men possessed of the two qualities expressed by wise and 
good., only one article should be employed, since only one noun is sup- 
pressed. The article is often improperly suppressed by careless wri- 
ters, so as to iajure sometimes the perspicuity and sometimes the 
force of discourse. In French and some other modern languages, the 



§ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 529 

determinative is repeated before each individual noun far more gene- 
rally than in English. This practice conduces to render the language 
both more clear and more forcible. The repetition of the article 
would in some cases appear stiff in our language. It is better, how- 
ever to repeat it unnecessarily, than to omit it where its presence is 
requisite to prevent ambiguity. 

This and That. — We have already observed one marked pecu- 
liarity of these two determinatives, viz ; that, unlike our other adjec- 
tives, they both possess a plural form. {See §94. note p. 300) 

These words are much more determinate (that is, used with nouns 
much more determinately employed) than the (so called) definite ar- 
ticle the. Their primary use is to accompany nouns intended to de- 
signate objects present to the view of the speaker, and determined by 
some look or gesture, or intimation borrowed from the signs of natural 
language, to which natural sign they call the attention of the hearer. 
Hence they have been called demonstratives by the grammarians, be- 
cause, as they allege, they point out {deraonstrate) the particular ob- 
jects designated. 

This is prefixed to nouns representing objects relatively near to 
the speaker, that to objects more remote, the differs from these words 
in being, though less determinative, of far more general application. 
It is employed in speaking of objects absent, as weU as present, and 
indicates a limitation given to its noun by artificial^ or articulate lan- 
guage^ without the aid of natural signs. In these respects it differs 
from this and that. Another difference worthy of observation is 
that we often employ this and that substantively, suppressing the 
noun which they designate, but we never so employ either of the de- 
terminatives the or an. 

A secondary use of the determinatives this and that is to indicate 
in written discourse, and, sometimes, in formal addresses — this^ some- 
thing proximate in the order of the discourse, that^ something rela- 
tively more remote, 

" Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these.''"' — ^Pope. 
" The palaces and lofty domes arose — > 

These for devotion, and for pleasure those.''"' — Idem. 
Here relative proximity in the arrangement of the words serves the 
same purpose of rendering the reference determinate, as proximity in 
place does in the case of the speaker, who has the objects to which he 
refers under his eye, and employs a natural gesture to assist artificial 
language in fixing on them the attention of the hearer. The deter- 
34 



530 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 158. 

minative words former and latter are more frequently nsed for this 
purpose, and perform this function generally in a more natural and 
graceful manner — ^Yith much less stiffness and formality than tliis and 
that. 

With tliis and that may be classed yonder and yon. These words, 
though at present in less common use, have been employed by many 
of our best authors. They are used to designate objects in sight but dis- 
tant from the speaker. Ex. " Yon flowery arbors, yonder alleys green." 
— Milton. " Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower." — Gray. 

J^OTE, — "We have had occasion to speak elsewhere of the several functions 
performed by that as a conjunctive pronoun and as a conjunction. We may 
here declare unreservedly our agreement with the opinion of those who hold 
that THAT in all these diverse functions, is one and the same word ; and that, 
in all the uses which it serves, it still retains its original force, namely, that of 
a determinative adjective. We believe that all its functions may be traced 
to its original determinative function. 

The and that with then, there, tha.n are all forms, as we believe of one 
original word. Thence and thither are derivatives from these, and we sus- 
pect that thou (Ang.-Sax. thu) and thee (Ang.-Sax. the) are of the same 
family. We exhibit the declension of the Anglo-Saxon article, and mark 
the words by italics, which have been retained in modern English. 

Plural. 

All Genders. 
Tha, The. 

Thara, Of the. 

Thara, To the. 

Tha, The. 

Se is most likel}' only a corruption of the sound of the, and seo of theo. 
From thaet we have our English that ; from the dative thaere our adverb 
there, as explained elsewhere ; and from the accusative thone, thaene, thaenne 
or thanne we have then and than, written in Anglo-Saxon thonne or thaenne. 

Order of Arrangement of the DETER:NnxATivES. — We have al- 
ready observed elsewhere that, when nouns are preceded both by 
descriptive and determinative adjectives, the determinatives take the 
precedence because they affect the noun as limited or restricted by the 
descriptive adjectives. Examples : many wise men ; all degrading 
vices ; your hlach horse ; tico important truths ; a beautiful land- 
scape ; the setting sun ; &c. Here many., all^ your., two, a, and the., being 
determinatives, and embracing within their influence the noons together 
with their more intimate modifications (or, in other words, the nouns 
as already modified by the descriptive adjectives), naturally take the 





Singular. 






Masc. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


N. 


Se, 


Seo, 


Thaet. 


G. 


Thaes, 


Thaere, 


Thaes. 


D. 


Tliam, 


Thaere, 


Tham. 


A. 


Thone, 


Tha, 


Thaet. 



§ 159.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. WHO, WHICH, THAT. 631 

precedence, or, perhaps, vfe should rather say, the more remote 
place from the noun, since they are the more remote complements. 

When more than one determinative precedes the same noun, the 
determinatives an and the usually take the precedence of all other de- 
terminatives. We have already had occasion to observe that many 
determinative words exclude the articles ; such are the possessive 
pronouns ; the demonstratives this^ that^ yon^ yonder^ already noticed ; 
of the class which the grammarians have called indefinite pronouns, 
any^ much^ no, none, some ; and all the distributives each, every, either, 
neither. Those which admit the use of the articles before them are 
the whole class of numerals, together with feic, other, same, several, 
whole, former, latter, last. 

We have had occasion to notice that all and l)oth take precedence 
of the ; in the same manner many and such and the interrogative 
what precede an or a, as, " Full many a gem of purest ray serene," 
&c. Such a man ; what a monster ! In the same manner an or a is 
placed after descriptive adjectives modified by the adverbs as, how, so, 
too. Examples : You have as laege a house ; How wise an a.nswer that 
man gave ; So fine a landscape is rarely found ; Too foolish an action 
for a sane man to perform ; &c. 

Some have attempted to account for such expressions as all the 
world, by alleging that there is a suppression of the preposition of in 
cases of this kind ; that all the world is a contraction of the expres- 
sion all of the world. We believe that all these forms of expression 
are to be explained by reference to the same principle which regulates 
the sequence of descriptive and determinative adjectives ; namely 
that the more intimate modification is placed in closest contact with 
the noun and the more remote which modifies the noun as already 
modified by the more intimate complement stands at the greatest dis- 
tance. For example, in the expressions all the men, l)oth the men, it 
is men under all the restriction or limitation (a limitation of which 
the parties to the discourse are supposed to have mutual cognizance) 
indicated by the to which the force of the determinative all is ap- 
plied. The same explanation we presume may be given of the expres- 
sions in which an or a is preceded by another determinative. An ob- 
ject after being individualized (if we may be allowed the expression) 
comes under the modification of the other determinative. For ex- 
ample, in Full many a gem, the igem is regarded first as an individual, 
and as thus regarded it is affected by the word many = Many indivi- 
dual gems. 

§ 159. We take the opportunity of presenting in this place some 
observations on the Conjunctive Peonouns, which, though not suit- 



532 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 159. 

able to be introduced as a part of tbe elementary instruction intended 
for younger students, are yet necessary to tbe full description, as well 
as to tbe full bistory of tbis important class of words ; nor less necessary 
to place us in a proper position for obtaining correct views of some of 
tbe uses wbicb tbey serve. Tbese observations may be perused with 
advantage, after tbe student bas become familiar witb tbe common 
purposes wbicb Conjunctive Pronouns serve in the current language of 
the day. 

It may be useful to remember that who was not originally employed 
as a Conjunctive Pronoun. Tbis word, and all the family to wbicb it 
belongs commencing witb the consonantal modification of sound repre- 
sented by tbe letters wTi^ were originally only interrogative. They 
were used only as interrogatives in the Anglo-Saxon, and not as con- 
junctive or relative words. In Anglo-Saxon this function of Conjunc- 
tives is performed by the words se, witb feminine form seo and neuter 
thaet, and the^ which we have been considering above. Tbese words 
also performed tbe function of determinatives, as thaet = that, and the 
do still in the modern language. This circumstance exhibits in a 
strong light the connection in Anglo-Saxon, as in other languages, of 
tbe determinatives and tbe conjunctive pronouns. In fact conjunctive 
pronouns seem to have originated from a peculiar usage of determina- 
tives, contrary to tbe views of those grammarians who have taken so 
much pains to trace tbe article (in tbe Greek language, for example) 
to tbe relative pronoun. If tbey had spent the same labor in tra- 
cing the relative to the determinative, we think tbey would have been 
more successful. The conjunctive use or function appears to us to 
have originated in a peculiar employment of determinative words ; 
namely, in tbe repetition of tbe determinative which modifies the an- 
tecedent before tbe accessory proposition to mark that it applies to the 
same word (tbe antecedent) to which the preceding determinative is at- 
tached. Or, perhaps rather, the determinative before tbe accessory is to 
be considered as implying the repetition of tbe antecedent noun to be 
modified by tbe accessory, which noun was most likely repeated with 
the determinative in tbe accessory proposition. Tbe following form of 
expression will exhibit what we mean : 27ie max, the man met us in 
our travels last year, is dead. This, we think, was likely tbe form 
in which the first attempt at using an adjective accessory proposition 
was made. The transition from this to tbe abbreviation. The man, 
THE met us, &c., is perfectly natural. And this is precisely the form 
of the adjective accessory proposition in Anglo-Saxon. 

"We find, in confirmation of tbis view, examples, in tbe classical lan- 
guages and in the most classical authors, of the oldest form of the ad- 



§ 159.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. WHO, WHICH, THAT. 533 

jective accessory proposition — that in which the antecedent is repeated 
with the relative. For example, we find in C^sar, " Diem dicunt, qua 
die ad ripam Rhodani omnes conveniant," and " Erant omnino itinera 
duo, quibus itinerihus domo exire possent." 

Those who are acquainted with German know that the article der^ 
die, das is still often employed as a conjunctive pronoun to introduce 
an adjective accessory proposition. This usage presents a clear illus- 
tration of our views. 

From what has been said of the use of the article in Anglo-Saxon 
as a representative word in forming accessory propositions, it will ap- 
pear that the word that (in Anglo-Saxon written thaet), which is the 
neuter form of the Anglo-Saxon article -= to our the, has claim to 
be considered the oldest conjunctive pronoun in our language. Origi- 
nally, indeed, it represented only neuter nouns, but for this purpose 
was employed in accessory propositions long antecedent to the use of 
who or ichich for the same purpose. "We present an example of this 
use which will further illustrate the remarks which we made above. 
Ic geendode thaet weoeo thaet thu me sealdest to donne. I have fin- 
ished the worh which thou gavest me to do. John 17 : 4. This is ex- 
actly equivalent to " the worTc they 

Mr. Addison showed such strong preference for that as a conjunctive pro- 
noun, that (by the influence of his example) he seemed at one time likely to 
render the use of who and which as relatives altogether unfashionable. Had 
he known the history of these words he might have justified his preference 
for that, by saying that he was only endeavoring to restore this unfortunate 
word to the possession of its ancient rights in the language. This word is 
however still perhaps more than enough employed in the language, and this 
is a good argument with others against imitating Mr. Addison in the un- 
necessary frequency of introducing it as a relative. In one respect, we have 
extended its use in the modern language by employing it, though originally 
a neuter form, as the Anglo-Saxons employed the, to represent nouns of all 
genders. But, on the other hand, we give it only a divided empire with 
who and which the interrogative words, that have usurped a large part of the 
domain which once belonged exclusively to the determinatives se, seo, thaet, 
and the. 

We are not in a position to explore fully the history of this usurpation. 
It seems to have been begun in the second period of our language — the old 
English period. "We know not what light might possibly be cast on this 
history by a eareful examination of the remains of the earlier old English, 
and the later Anglo-Saxon. Possibly the innovation took place at a period 
of which the written remains are most scanty, and perhaps its commence- 
ment cannot be satisfactorily traced. We beg leave to commend the in- 



534 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§159. 

quiiy to those who are conversant with these scanty remains of early docu- 
ments of yarious kinds — we could scarcely with propriety say, remains of 
our early literaticre. We may remark that the word that appears to have 
been much more used as a relative in the times even of Wiclif and Chaucer, 
than at the present day. We suspect, on a cursory examination, that who 
and who7n are seldom used as relatives by these authors. Chaucer often uses 
which and that together in reference both to persons and non-personals. 
Examples : " Unto the cure of hem (them) which that they han (have) in hir 
(their) governaunce," speaking of physicians. "Than shuln (then shall) ye 
examine the second condition, which that the same Tulllus addeth in this 
matere. For Tullius putteth a thing, which that he clepeth (calleth) con- 
senting." — (Tale of Melibeus.) In the first of these examples which that, 
refers to persons — the patients of the physicians ; in the two last to own-per- 
sonals. In all these examples — and there are three more similar examples 
besides these within a few pages — which is evidently used adjectively with 
that, which serves as the true representative word. It may be that here we 
have a step in the introduction of which to its present relative function. 
"We have, at all events, a satisfactory proof of the priority of that, which we 
have asserted above. 

We may remark, that a similar usurpation of the relative function by 
the interrogatives seems to have occurred in the Latin language. We pre- 
sume that qui or quis (different forms of the same word) was originally ex- 
clusively interrogative in Latin, or the language from which Latin sprung. 
The sound represented by k and sounds akin to it, as qu and A hard, seem 
to have characterized the interrogative words in the Indo-Germanic (or 
Arian, as some modern philologists choose to call it) family of languages 
generally. (See Latham Eng. Lang. p. 250, 2d edit, and Gri'imm, vol. iii., 
pp. 1-3.) We have a numerous family of these interrogative words com- 
mencing in modern written English with the letters wh (in Anglo-Saxon 
with hw, which lettters still represent more exactly the present pronuncia- 
tion), and in Scottish with quh, which exhibits the connection with the Latin 
qu. We may enumerate among these who and its neuter wliat, when, where 
(both originally only cases of who), whence, whether, which (supposed to be a 
compound of who and lie, Scotice quhilk, see Grimm as above), whither, why, 
and their numerous derivatives. To these we may add how, which retains 
the characteristic hard sound of h, but has lost the w, perhaps, through a 
regard to euphony. [See § 98.) All the primitive words of this class were 
originally (and originally perhaps exclusively) employed interrogatively. 
Some of their derivatives, having been foi*med after the primitives had been 
usurped in a determinative sense (for the conjunctive pronouns may all be 
regarded as essentially determinatives — determinatives used substantively, 
and with an implication of connection or conjunction), were possibly never 
employed as interrogatives. We mean such derivatives, for example, as 
whosoever, whensoever, &c. 



§ 159.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. WHO, WHICH, THAT. 535 

We may here also notice a similar uniformity in the leading and princi- 
pal consonantal articulation of the original determinatives. This character- 
istic articulation in the Indo-Germanic languages seems to have been that 
represented by the letters t, th, or d — all kindred sounds. In our language 
the characteristic sound of this class is that of th. With the articulation 
which these letters represent, the determinatives the, that, and there, then, 
than (all three cases of the article), thence, thither, commence — all apparently 
from the same root ; and perhaps thou, thee, thine, as well as they, their, 
them, involve the same radicle. 

We have in English still another class of words kindred in sound, like 
the above-mentioned classes, and kindred in meaning, commencing with the 
hard aspiration represented by the letter h, as he, him, her, here, hither, &c. 
It is likely that these classes of words had each their origin in a single sound, 
a single utterance from which each respective kindred family sprung. Shall 
we say that who, the, and he are the patriarchal ancestors of these kindred 
families ? It will be noticed that the two last-mentioned families of words 
afford answers to the interrogatives ; thus, 

Who ? Ans. The, or that man, or He. 

What? " That, or This. 

Where? " There, Here. 

Whither? " Thither, Hither. 

This seems to have migrated from its own family, as the interrogatives 
have done ; or some change may have happened to its form, as has hap- 
pened to they, their, them. (See § 155.) The words commencing with the 
h sound seem to have indicated proximity to the speaker, the words in th 
distance from the speaker, or rather perhaps proximity to the hearer. This 
distinction is best and most manifestly retained between the words here 
and there, hither and thither. 

We have already remai'ked ( § 98), that who interrogative is a substan- 
tive 'pronoun — always performing the function of a noun. The same may 
be said of it when employed conjunctively. We never connect this word 
with a noun, and say, for example, who man, or xoho woman. Which, on 
the contrary, conjunctively, as well as interrogatively employed, is properly 
an adjective. It is still employed as an adjective, even, when necessary, 
with words signifying persons, since who disclaims this servile function and 
abandons it to its derivative which. We give examples : " By the which 
will we are sanctified." Which person, it happens, that I have never seen. 
A determinative (article) is sometimes employed before which, namely, the 
article that belongs to the noun suppressed after which. This article indi- 
cates clearly the suppression of the noun. Examples : " In the which I will 
appear unto thee." In the which ye also walked." " That worthy name by 
the which ye are called." Which, we think, is always to be considered an 
adjective ; and when employed as it usually is, to represent a noun, as an 



636 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [§ 159. 

adjective employed substantively. (When the noun is expressed with it^ 
which should be treated in analysis as a determinative.) The same is to be 
said of the determinative that, when employed as a conjunctive pronoun. 
It is really an adjective ; but in its determinative function it is often, in its 
conjunctive function, we believe, always, employed substantively. The only 
real substantive conjunctive pronouns in our language, ai-e who and its com- 
pounds whoever, ivhosoever, &c. The facts now stated are important to the 
right understanding of the uses of who and which. 

The above observations, it will be seen, apply to who and which inter- 
rogative, as well as conjunctive. 



APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 



§160. (1) In spoken language pauses are necessarily introduced 
that the speaker may have opportunity to draw his breath. (2) But 
at the same time that pauses directly serve this indispensable purpose, 
a part, at least, of these necessary rests of the voice are so managed 
by good speakers as to mark incidentally the grammatical and logical 
divisions of discourse ; and besides this pauses are often introduced for 
rhetorical purposes. (3) The pauses which mark grammatical divisions 
of discourse may be arranged in two classes ; namely, those which 
consist of a mere rest or suspension of the voice, and those which 
consist of a rest preceded by a full cadence^ or closing fall of the voice. 
(4) In continued narration, regular cadences and full pauses are used 
to close the enunciation of portions of discourse which, forming each 
complete sense, stand grammatically independent of what precedes and 
what follows. (5) Such portions of discourse are commonly called 
sentences.* (6) Eests or pauses without a full cadence of the voice 
are used in speaking to mark the grammatical and logical divisions 
which occur within the limits of a single sentence, exclusive of the 
final pause.t 

(7) In written language a number of diacritical marks called points 
(often improperly named pauses^ we object even to calling them signs 
of pauses) are employed for the same purpose of marking the gramma- 



* See note (a) at the end of this appendix, 
f See note (6) at the end of this appendix. 



§160. (1) What is the direct purpose of pauses in spoken language? (2) For what 
other purposes are pauses employed incidentally in speech ? (3) In what classes are pauses 
which mark the divisions of sense arranged ? (4) For what purpose is the pause preceded 
by a full cadence employed ? (5) What name is given to a portion of discourse closed by a 
full cadence ? (6) For what purpose are pauses without a full cadence employed in spcei'h ? 

(T) What contrivance has been adopted in written language for the purpose of marking 



538 APPENDIX OX PUNCTUATION. [§ 160. 

tical and logical divisions of discourse not to represent pauses. (8) This 
contrivance of written language is called Punctttation, by others, per- 
haps more properly in some of its applications, Inteepuxction. (9) It 
is manifest that this contrivance has a close connection with gram- 
mar ; and that a knowledge of its principles, founded as they are upon 
grammar, is important to every one who has occasion to commit his 
own thoughts to writing, or to peruse understandingly the writings 
of others, since a judicious use of punctuation contributes greatly to 
the perspicuity of written discourse."^ 

The Full Point oe Peeiod. — (10) The point employed to indi- 
cate the end of a sentence — the completion of a construction indepen- 
dent in sense and in grammatical structure — ^is called a, fall point (.), or 
period. (11) It is necessary to observe here that the same point, or 
mark is used to indicate contractions as, Mr. = master (pronounced 
mister') ; M. P. = meniber of parliament ; i, e. = id est (in English 
tliat is) ; &c. = et ccetera. (12) When a point indicating contraction 
occurs at the end of a sentence, another point is not added, but the 
same point serves both to indicate contraction and for the purpose of 
punctuation. This happens most frequently with the phrase &c., as 
no contraction is so likely as this to occur often at the close of a sen- 
tence. Por example : His lirotJier sent Mm Ms clothes^ iool^s, pap)ers.^ 
&c. Here the point after &c, supersedes the use of the full point re- 
quired to close the sentence. (13) In correct orthography every new 
sentence commences with a capital, or large letter, which serves (ex- 
cept when the first word for other cause has a large letter) to mark 
the division of sentences, and enables us the more readily to dispense 
with the repetition of the point to mark the punctuation. (14:) The 
learner may be warned that the occurrence of a point as a mark of con- 
traction does not supersede the use of any other, except the full point. 
The comma^ semicolon and other points foUow &c. and other contractions, 
when the sense and construction require their use. (15) In interro- 

*See note (c) at the end of this appendix. 

the divisions of sense ^hich are marked by pauses in spoken language ? (8) What is this 
contriTance called ? (9) Eepeat the remarks made in reference to the importance of pimc- 
tnation. 

(10) What is the point employed to indicate the termination of a sentence called ? De- 
scribe the form of this point inclosed above in pai-enthetic marks. (11) For -what other 
purpose is this same point or mark employed ? (12) What is done, when a point nsed to 
indicate contraction occm^ at the end of a sentence ? Illustrate by an example. (13) What 
circumstance enables us the more easily to dispense with the second point on such occa- 
sions ? (14) Does the occurrence of a point indicating contraction supersede the use of any 
point except the period ? (15) By what other marks is the use of the period or full point 
superseded ? 



§ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 539 

gative and passionate forms of expression the use of the full point at 
the end of a sentence is superseded by the marks of interrogation and 
of exclamation. 

(16) Three distinct signs are employed to indicate the more or less 
marked divisions which may occur within a sentence. These signs or 
marks are called the comma (,), the semicolon (;) and the colon (:). (17) The 
comma^ which marks the lesser intersections, or cuttings (the term 
comma means a cutting) of discourse, or rather of a sentence, is the 
point of this class which comes into most general use ; especially with 
our modern authors, who generally strive to avoid the long and com- 
plicated constructions freely employed by the writers of the seven- 
teenth century. 

Use of the Comma. — (18) We may distinguish three purposes 
for which the comma is employed : 1st. — To separate the propositions 
which follow one another, or are intermixed in compound construc- 
tions ; or to separate the several co-ordinate propositions, or members 
or modifications of propositions which an author chooses to connect 
in the same sentence : 2d. — To inclose something (which is, at least, 
grammatically independent) within a construction : and 3d. — To indi- 
cate an ellipsis or suppression of a word. 

(19) Of the first two uses (the principal uses, and closely allied to 
each other) we have furnished abundant exemplification in the consi- 
deration of compound and of combined or connected propositions. 
"We have in treating of these classes of propositions exhausted all that 
we have to say, whilst we are confined to the mode of punctuation 
now in use. We consider it the most judicious way of teaching the 
use of the comma especially, to point out where it is usually intro- 
duced in compound and complicated constructions, when we are en- 
gaged in the analysis of such constructions, and when the pupil is 
called upon to furnish examples of these constructions. By requiring 
him to point all his examples, he comes without labor to learn the 
principles of punctuation (so far as our present system has any prin- 
ciples), and to apply them practically. We confine ourselves at pre- 
sent to a partial recapitulation of what we have already taught in 
illustration of the first two uses of the comma. 

(16) How many distinct signs are employed to mark the divisions %yithin a sentence? 
Name these signs, and describe their form. (17) Which of these three points is in most 
general use with modern writers ? What is the original meaning of the word comma f 

(IS) For how many distinct purposes is the comma employed in written language ? 
Mention the 1st purpose; the 2d purpose; the 8d purpose. 

(19) Where has abundant exemplification of the first two uses of the comma been fur- 
nished already? Eepeat the substance of the remarks in reference to the best manner of 
teaching the application of the comma, 



640 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [§ 160. 

1st. (20) As to the first purpose ; the comma is often employed in 
separating accessory from their principal propositions. (21) The em- 
ployment of the comma (as we have already had more than one oc- 
casion to observe) is not in all cases of this kind determined by fixed 
usage ; and neither the customary interposition, nor the customary 
omission of this sign can be always explained by an appeal to clear 
and well settled principles. (See note (c) at the end of this appen- 
dix.) 

(22) Generally speaking, the comma is not interposed between 
substantive or adjective accessories and the principal propositions to 
which they are attached. (The substantive accessory used as subject 
is generally separated by a comma, § 103.) (23) On the contrary, most 
of the advertial accessories are either uniformly separated from their 
principal propositions, or the usage in reference to them is not uni- 
form. (24) The accessories used in comparison of the intensities of 
qualities with the conjunctions as and than are not generally separat- 
ed from the principal proposition by a comma, nor the adverbial ac- 
cessories of time preceded by the prepositions Ijefore^ after^ since^ 
when these accessories follow the principal proposition. (25) When 
the construction is inverted, and such accessories precede the principal 
proposition, they are generally separated by interpunction. 

(26) "When independent, or co-ordinate propositions are connected, 
a comma is always interposed ; and when co-ordinate members of pro- 
positions, or co-ordinate complements are arranged together, a comma 
should be interposed, except when a conjunction is placed between 
such co-ordinate members and such complements. (27) A conjunction 
interposed sufficiently indicates the separation of words thus employed 
and the nature of the construction. For further details we refer 
back to the remarks on punctuation which follow the discussion of 
the different forms of compound propositions, and of the different 
modes of connecting co-ordinate propositions together in the same 
construction. 



(20) What kind of propositions is the comma often used to separate ? (21) Eepeat the 
observation in reference to the separation of accessory from principal propositions by a 
comma. 

(22) What classes of accessories are generally not separated by a comma? (23) What 
class is most generally separated ? (24) Enumerate some adverbial accessories which are 
not generally separated by interpunction. (25) What happens when the construction is in- 
verted, and the accessory precedes the principal ? 

(26) What is said of the punctuation of co-ordinate propositions ? What of co-ordinate 
members of propositions, and of co-ordinate modifications ? (27) Mention the cases in 
which the comma is omitted between co-ordinate words and the reason. 



§ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 641 

2d. (28) TV e have already observed on several occasions the use of 
the comma for the second purpose, that of inclosing a word, phrase 
or proposition within a construction. "We have examples in the case 
of such adverbs and adverbial phrases as perhaps^ possibly^ generally^ 
indeed^ therefore^ then^ without doubt^ on the contrary^ in the first 
place^ beyond dispute^ &c. &c., which are generally separated from the 
rest of the discourse by commas. We have examples also in the case 
of noun and'preposition modifications expressing circumstances, when 
these are placed before and at a distance from the part of the predi- 
cate which they modify ; and especially when they modify the propo- 
sition generally rather than the predicate particularly. (29) This use 
of the comma, to separate, or insulate single words or complements, 
should perhaps be confined to cases in which these words or comple- 
ments suggest other additional propositions distinct from those in 
which they are interpolated, or before which they are placed. 

(30) We may notice again that the words by which we address 
persons to call their attention, &c., whether their own names or pro- 
nouns or appellations of respect and honor as Jfr., Sir^ My Lord (in 
a word, what are known by the name vocatives)^ are usually separated 
by a comma from the adjoining proposition. (31) The noun in apposi- 
tion, especially when followed by a train of modifying words, is ge- 
nerally separated by commas (and perhaps should in consistency be 
always separated, when it follows the principal noun) from the propo- 
sition in which it occurs. (32) The explicative, or epithetic proposi- 
tion (which, as we have had occasion elsewhere to observe, bears a 
strong analogy to the noun in apposition) should always be inclosed, 
or cut off from the rest of the construction by commas. 

3d. The third use of the comma to indicate ellipsis is altogether 
peculiar, arbitrary, as it seems to us, in its application, and little, if at 
all, connected with the other uses of this mark. (33) In this use, it 
indicates the suppression of a verb which belongs in common to two 
or more successive propositions, but which is expressed only in the 
first. (34) Examples : " Homer was the greater genius ; Yirgil, the 
better artist." The comma after " Yirgil " indicates the suppression 



(28) What examples are referred to of the second use of the comma ? (29) To -what 
cases should this use of the comma in insulating single words and complements, perhaps, 
be confined ? 

(30) Mention another class of words usually separated by interpunction. (31) What is 
said of the noun in apposition ? (32) To what kind of accessory proposition is reference 
made as the last example of this use of the comma ? 

(83) Describe the third use of the comma. (34) Illustrate this use by examples. 



542 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [§ 160. 

of the verb " was." " In one we most admire the man ; in the other, 
the work." Here the comma after " other " indicates the suppression 
of the verb " admire." Sentences constructed in this artifical man- 
ner are rare, and the comma is not invariably employed in such 
cases. 

Remark. — Tliis use of the comma seems to have originated from the at- 
tempt to indicate all the pauses of speech by points in written language. It 
is certainly natural to indicate the suppression in propositions, like those 
now quoted as examples, by a suspension of the voice in speaking. But we 
doubt much whether the use of a diacritical point as above, separating the 
parts of a proposition most closely connected grammatically and logically, 
can contribute much to perspicuity. We can conceive cases in which it would 
confuse the reader. It is vain to hope that we shall be able to represent by 
diacritical marks to the eye, all the delicate distinctions which the human 
voice can convey to the ear by pauses, suspensions, tones, &c. Confusion, it 
seems to us (instead of greater clearness), has resulted from endeavoring to 
represent all pauses by points, instead of contenting ourselves with the use 
of these marks to distinguish the important divisions of discourse. 

Use of the Semicolon. — (35) When a sentence arranges itself 
into two or more larger and less closely connected divisions, contain- 
ing (one or more of them) subdivisions which demand the use of the 
comma, a semicolon is employed to mark the separation of the larger 
divisions. Example : " We then relax our vigor, and resolve no 
longer to be terrified with crimes at a distance ; but rely upon our 
own constancy, and venture to approach what we resolve never to 
touch." (86) Such greater divisions as are separated by semicolons 
are generally co-ordinate and independent in sense, though the subse- 
quent divisions often borrow words or whole members, sometimes 
both subject and verb from a preceding division of the sentence. 
Thus, in the example, the verbs rely and venture^ which follow the se- 
micolon, borrow their subject ice from the propositions which precede 
the semicolon. An example will be adduced presently in which a 
series of propositions, separated by semicolons, borrow both subject 
and verb from the first in the series. All is suppressed in the subse- 
quent propositions of the series except the modifications of the predi- 
cate. (37) Members between which the semicolon is used, being co- 
ordinate^ are very generally, tJiougJi not inxariaMy^ connected by co- 
ordinate conjunctions.* 

* Some writers make the whole distinction between the use of the semi- 

(35) Describe the chief purpose for which the semicolon is employed. Illustrate by an 
example. (36") State what is said of the relation between members separated by semicolons. 
(37) How are such members generally connected ? 



§ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 543 

(38) Sometimes propositions enunciating independent facts, which 
might, if the writer chose, he separated h}^ periods as distinct sentences, 
are comprehended within the same construction, and separated only 



colon and the colon to consist in this, that the semicolon is properly placed 
only between members connected by a conjunction, and the colon between 
members which are not so connected. In this case it would be very im- 
portant to determine what conjunctions are intended ; whether all conjunc- 
tions and conjunctive words in general, or only the co-ordinate conjunctions. 
The rule seems to us to lead to strange inconsistency in the use of points. 
Those who advocate it admit that the colon is employed to mark a greater 
division in sense and construction than the semicolon. The very names 
given to these two points imply this fact. Yet the rule, as laid down in 
some treatises, would lead us in many cases to employ the colon where, not 
even the semicolon, but the comma only can with propriety be introduced. 
Members (whether consisting of single propositions or of groups of proposi- 
tions separated by commas) unconnected by a conjunction, sometimes stand 
in closer relation, both in sense and grammatical construction, than mem- 
bers connected by conjimctions. The rule would often require the intro- 
duction of a colon between a noun and the noun which stands in apposition 
with it. An advocate of this rule gives the following sentence as affording 
examples of the improper use of the colon : " He first lost by his misconduct 
the flourishing provinces of France, the ancient patrimony of the family: he 
subjected his kingdom to a shameful vassalage under the see of Eome : he 
saw the prerogatives of his crown diminished by law, and still more reduced 
by faction : and he died at last," &c. We agree with our friend that the 
colons are here unnecessarily used : for in this case semicolons are sufficient. 
But our reason for rejecting the colons is not simply because the members 
are connected by a7id expressed between the last two members and implied 
between the other members. We cannot, however, agree with him, when 
he remarks, speaking of the passage quoted above, " At France, we have 
perfect sense : consequently the comma should be displaced by the colon : 
which were, the connective and the verb, being suppressed." Why ; it may 
be alleged that who or which and some tense of the verb to be is suppressed 
in any and every case of apposition ; therefore, if such apposition occurs 
where the preceding words happen to form complete sense, a colon must be 
introduced between the noun and the apposition, notwithstanding their close 
connection as principal and compleme7it Such punctuation, it seems to us, 
frustrates the great design of punctuation, which is to contribute to perspi- 
cuity. The confounding of points with pauses, is the original source of 
trouble in this matter. A longer pause is used (perhaps) between members, 
when a conjunction is suppressed.' Therefore a higher point should mark 

(38) Describe another purpose for which the semicolon is employed, furnish examples, 
and repeat the substance of the remarks. 



544 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [§160. 

by semicolons, though no one of these propositions admits of subdivi- 
sion by a comma. Example : " True gentleness teaches us to bear 
one another's burdens; to rejoice with those who rejoice; to weep 
with those who weep ; to please every one his neighbor for his good ; 
to be kind and tender-hearted ; to be pitiful and courteous ; to support 
the weak ; and to be patient towards all men." These propositions 
by the way in which they are here gathered together are rendered 
constructionally, though not logically dependent. We adverted to 
this sentence above as an example of a construction in which succeed- 
ing propositions borrow both subject and verb from the first in the 
series. The following example presents a series of independent propo- 
sitions similarly comprehended in the same sentence, but in this case 
all the parts of each proposition are fully expressed. "The pride of 
wealth is contemptible ; the pride of learning is pitiable ; the pride of 
dignity is ridiculous ; but the pride of bigotry is insupportable." Some 
writers would employ only a comma in the punctuation of such sen- 
tences as we have exhibited in these two examples ; and certainly a 
comma would in constructions of this kind answer all the usual pur- 
poses attained by punctuation. A semicolon indicates more clearly the 
writer's sense of the marked distinctness of the assertions compre- 
hended together, and gives greater emphasis to this fact. There are 
again writers who would place a period after each of these proposi- 
tions, and exhibit them as forming separate sentences. 

Use of the Colon. — (39) In the punctuation of the last and of 
preceding centuries, the colon seems to have borne the same relation 
to the semicolon which the semicolon bears to the comma. "When a 
sentence was so constructed that it contained two larger members, 
themselves, or at least one of them, subdivided by semicolons, and 
these subdivisions of course again subdivided by commas, the colon 
became necessary to distinguish the larger subdivisions.* (40) In 



it. That is, the point is to represent the pause, and not merely to discrimi- 
nate the sense. This reasoning would necessarily lead to the use of the colon 
in mstances, when the conjunction is (as usually happens) suppressed between 
all the members of a series except the last two. Consequently no colon, ex- 
cept the last, in the above quoted passage should be exchanged for a semi- 
colon, contrary to the author's views in which we have acquiesced. 

* We do not mean to imply, by what is here said, that the colon itself 
was of later invention than the semicolon. The point on a level with the 
lower part of the letter, and the point on a level with the upper part thus • , 

(39) What is said of the use of the colon in earlier writers? (40) Tell why it is that the 



§ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 545 

modern composition we generally contrive to avoid the construction 
of sentences so long and so complicated as to involve suhdivisions of 
subdivisions. Hence the colon is now much less frequently used in 
writing than in former times. (41) It is still occasionally introduced 
principally for the following purposes : To separate a member added 
to a complete construction in order to express some remark or short 
explanatory observation ; before a formal enumeration of particulars ; 
and before examples, quotations and speeches, when formally intro- 
duced. The sentence just finished affords an example of the second 
use. We subjoin additional examples. 

Colon before an additional remarh. — "There is no greater monster in be- 
ing than a very bad man of great talents : he lives like a man in a palsy, 
with one side of him dead." " We labor to eat, and we eat to live, and we 
live to do good, and the good which we do is as seed sown with reference 
to a future harvest: but we must come at length to some pause." Hooker's 
Eccles. Pol. I. 11, Oxford, 1843. "A family connected with a common 
parent, resembles a tree, the trunk and branches of which are connected 
with a common root : but let us suppose that a family is figured, not barely 
to be like a tree, but to be a tree ; and then the simile will be converted 
into a metaphor, in the following manner : 

"Edward's seven sons, whereof thyself art one," &c. — Karnes El. xx. 4. 
This last passage might he given as an example of the old use of the colon, as 
the member which follows it is divided by a semicolon. In this passage we 
have also an instance of a colon preceding the introduction of an example. 
The colon is more liberally employed in the " Elements of Criticism" than in 
most books of equally modern date. We refer, in making this remark, to a 
London edition, 1805, It may be noticed that both in the example from 
Hooker and Kames the colon precedes a member commencing with a con- 
junction. 

Colon before an enumeration of particulars. — " Man doth seek a triple 
perfection : first, a sensual, consisting &c, ; then an intellectual, consisting 
&e. ; lastly, a spiritual and divine, consisting " &c. 

Colon before quotation. — " When a Persian soldier was reviling Alexander 
the Great, his officer reprimanded him by saying : ' Sir, you were paid to 
fight Alexander, and not to rail at him.' " 



and the two points now called the colon were in use, we believe, long before 
either comma or semicolon. The present use of the points is of modern 
invention, though diacritical marks of some kind seem to have been em- 
ployed, at least by more careful writers, in very remote times. 

colon is seldom introduced in modern composition. (41) State the several purposes for 
which it is occasionally employed, and illustrate by examples. 



546 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [§ 160. 

JSToTE OE Mark of Inteeeogation. — (42) We have already had 
occasion to notice the use of the interrogation mark (?) in treating of 
interrogative propositions. This mark is employed after each separate 
proposition, when employed for the direct purpose of asking a question. 
Sometimes an interrogative proposition is included in a construction 
which is assertive or imperative ; thus, / aslced the man where he teas 
going ; Aslc^ that man where he is going. In sach cases the mark of 
interrogation is not employed, because the interrogative proposition is 
not here used for the purpose of inquiry. The same remark applies to 
propositions of the interrogative form employed figuratively to express 
a thought in a more striking or moving manner, when no answer is 
expected. Such propositions are usually classed with exclamations, 
and followed by the same mark, which we are about to describe. Ex- 
amples : 

" How jocund did they drive their team afield !" 

" O, how canst thou renounce the boundless store 

Of charms which Nature to her votary yields !" 

It must be admitted, however, that there is little consistency observed 

in the punctuation of these passionate interrogations. Sometimes the 

interrogation mark is used, and sometimes the exclamation mark. 

IsToTE OE Maek of Exclamation. — (43) The mark of exclamation 
is used after impassioned exclamations, and generally after all inter- 
jections, except O. Both the note of interrogation and the note of ad- 
miration, though rhetorical rather than diacritical marks, supersede 
the use of the period, comma, &c., whenever they are introduced after 
sentences or members of sentences. 

Use of the Dash. — (44) The dash ( — ) is perhaps most properly 
employed in impassioned discourse to indicate a sudden transition of 
thought. It is used sometimes to indicate merely a rhetorical pause 
often between words closely united in construction, to call special atten- 
tion to the part of the discourse which foUows the pause. Examples : 
" When I do see the very book indeed 
Where all my sins are writ, and that's — myself." 

The dash has come within the last twenty or thirty years to be much used 
to indicate a certain class of parenthetic remarks, viz. : those which present 
a thought in a new dress, or in a new point of view to exhibit it with greater 
clearness. Such expressions may be regarded as substitutes offered for that 



(42) Eepeat what is said of the mark of interrogation. 

(43) What is said of the use of the mark of exclamaUon? 

(44) What of the use of the dash ? 



I 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 547 

which precedes the dash. Sometimes a comma is used before the dash thus 
employed, sometimes uot. Usage in this respect is unsettled. In such cases 
the construction of the member which follows the dash must be carefully ad- 
justed to tlie construction of that which precedes. When the dash alone is 
used, if the parenthetic or substituted or amended expression does not close 
the construction (or, at least, affect, equally with what precedes the whole 
construction following), another dash must be used after it. We give exam- 
ples: "Neither should writing be disfigured by the contrary practice, — by 
omitting capitals, when, in all propriety, they ought to be introduced." In 
pointing this we should prefer to omit the comma before the dash, and sub- 
stitute a dash for the comma after "capitals." "I may be censured — per- 
haps I may be laughed at, for having said so much against the colon and 
semicolon." The writer in the last example, as it were, amends his expres- 
sion, or introduces a substitute. A dash is not repeated after the substituted 
expression, because the following part of the sentence affects or modifies the 
substituted and the original expression alike. "In 1746, he published 'The 
Castle of Indolence' — the most highly finished of all his compositions," (fee. 
"The view from this remarkable group of mountains — the most remarkable 
by far in the island — differs much from any other with which I am ac- 
quainted." In this example the words between the dashes are explanatory. 
Upon the whole, we must agree with those who have asserted that the 
dash has been too unsparingly and too recklessly employed by many English 
authors. Yet we do not condemn the use of this mark judiciously employed 
for the purpose last mentioned. This use may be regarded as a legitimate 
extension of its original use to denote a break in the sense. This is a break 
in the construction — a sudden turn in the form of the expression. It often 
happens that what is thus separated by a dash might be separated by paren- 
thetic marks. Parenthetic marks are used when a new, often an extraneous 
thought is thrown between the parts of a construction, and they can be used 
in multitudes of cases when neither commas nor dashes can with propriety 
be employed. We would use the parenthetic marks to indicate an interpo- 
lated thought (without confining them exclusively to this function, for they 
may with propriety be used to separate an explanatory expression), and 
the dash or dashes to indicate the introduction of another mode of expressing 
a preceding thought, a repetition of the same thought in a different form, 
or an equivalent substituted for it. The usage described, we think, agrees 
with the practice of the best writers of the present day. 

(45) The dash is sometimes used to indicate the place of an omitted 

word, or, more generally, some letters of a word ; thus, The M rs, 

for The Ministers. Omitted words and letters are also represented by 



(45) Describe another purpose for which the dash is sometimes employed, and tell what 
other marks are used occasionally for the same purpose. 



648 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [§ 160. 

asterisks; thus, * * * * Omitted letters are often represented by 
hyphens, or by dots or points ; a hyphen or point being usually substi- 
tuted for each letter omitted ; thus, P .' t, for Parliament. 

Paeenthetic Maeks. — (46) The use of parenthetic marks, or 
crotchets^ has been incidentally explained in treating of the dash. They 
are employed to introduce a sentence, a phrase, or sometimes a 
single word within a sentence. Sometimes a thought having a very 
remote (if any) connection with the general tenor of the discourse is 
introduced in this way. Neither commas nor dashes can with propri- 
ety be employed in such cases. In reading, such parentheses are usually 
marked by a suppression of the voice. Braclcets [ ] are sometimes em- 
ployed for similar purposes, most frequently, we think, to inclose 
interpolated words. When a parenthesis occurs within a parenthesis 
(an occurrence which should be avoided), 'brackets are employed to 
indicate the greater parenthesis, and crotchets to indicate the paren- 
thesis included within the greater. 

"We may here describe some other marks used for certain purposes in 
written discourse. 

(4*7) The Apostrophe (' ) is used to mark the omission of a letter; thus, 
e'er for ever, 'tis for it is, &c. We have already noticed the manner in which 
the apostrophe is used to indicate the English genitive case. In this case, 
too, it marks the omission of the e or i which anciently belonged to the geni- 
tive termination. 

(48) The Hyphen (-) is nsed to indicate compounded words; as, pri^it- 
ing-press, <fec. The hyphen is used when part of a word is carried to the 
next hne. In doing this, care must be taken never to divide a syllable. 

(49) Quotation Marks ( " " ) are used at the beginning and end of a 
passage to indicate that it is quoted or borrowed from some other writer. 
Sometimes these marks are repeated at the commencement of every line 
of a quotation. These marks are called by the French " Guillemets," we 
believe, from the name of the inventor of this contrivance. We have no 
appropriate name for them in English. 

(50) The Diuresis consists of two points placed over the last of two vow- 
els, to indicate that they are to be pronounced in separate syllables — not as 
a diphthong. They are unnecessary except over vowels which generally 
coalesce into a diphthong, and not even then in words which are in familiar 
use. We have examples in the proper names Laocoon, Bootes, <fec. 



(46) Describe the use o? parenthetic marks, or crotchets and 'brackets. 

(47) Describe the use of the apostrophe. 

(48) Describe the two uses of the hyphen. 

(49) Describe the use of quotation marks. 

(50) Describe the use of dicRresis. 



§ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 549 

(51) The Brace is employed to connect two or more lines, for the purpose 
of indicating that the words on the opposite side of the brace have a com- 
mon relation to what these lines severally contain. Example : 



< I shall / 
'future, < ^ .„ >• write. 
( I will S 



Here we have two braces ; the second indicates that the word write be- 
longs in common to / shall and / will — that, in fact, it is to be repeated 
with both ; and the first brace indicates that all which follows and is em- 
braced by it, has a common relation to the word futxire. More examples of 
the use of this mark may be found in the Synoptical Table of English 
Verbs, pp. 152, 153. This mark is now seldom employed, except in the 
construction of tables. Formerly it was often used in poetry to connect 
triplets [see Appendix on Versijication) : but both triplets and braces are out 
of fashion at pi'esent. 

(52) The Accent ( ' ) is used (chiefly in dictionaries) to mark that syllable 
of a word on which the chief stress of the voice is laid in pronunciation, 

(53) The Section ( § ) is used to mark the divisions of discourse. For- 
merly the Paragraph ( ^ ) was used to indicate the transition to a new 
subject ; but it is now seldom employed for this purpose, except in some 
editions of the Sacred Scriptures. 

(54) The Caret having the form of an inverted v is placed, in manu- 
script, under the line to indicate the accidental omission of words. The 
words omitted are placed above the line, and the caret shows the place at 
which they are to be inserted. This mark is not used in printed books, 

(55) The following marks are employed in referring to notes placed at 
the bottom of the page, and generally in the order of precedence in which 
we here arrange them : viz., for the first note the Asterisk (* ) is employed 
to indicate the place to which the note belongs, and to designate the note ; for 
the second, when more than one note occurs on the same page, the Obe- 
lisk ( f ) : for the third, the Double Obelisk {%)'> and so in succession the 
Section ( § ) ; the Parallels ( || ) ; the Paragraph ( ^ ) ; the Index ( ^^^ ). 
Sometimes, when these marks are all exhausted, we commence again from 
the beginning, doubling each mark; thus (**), ( ff ), <fec. Letters and 
figures are often used for the same purpose. 

(56) Capital Letters. — These are employed at the beginning of words. 
1st. To mark the commencement of every sentence; of every line of 

poetry, and of every quotation and every examjDle formally introduced. 

(51) Describe the use of the 'brace. 

(52) Describe the use of the accent. 

(53) Describe the use of the secfe'oTi.. r 

(54) Describe the use of the caret. 

(55) Enumerate in order the several marks used for reference. 

(56) Mention the several purposes for which capital letters are employed in the begia- 
ntng of words. 



650 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [§ 160. 

2d. To distinguisli every proper name, including the appropriate designa- 
tions of persons, countries or regions, states, mountains, rivers, cities, ships, 
and all adjectives formed from such proper names ; the names of months, 
and days of the week ; titles of honor, or office, which have become a part 
of the appellation of the individual to whom they are applied ; and names 
of personified objects; as, for example : 

" Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom reared ! 
Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrained!" 

3d. The pronoun I, and the interjection are always written with a 
capital letter. 

4th. Writers often commence with a capital. the word which expresses 
the subject of present discussion, or any word to which they wish to draw 
particular attention. 

(o^) Italics are often employed in printing words or passages to which 
the author wishes to call the special attention of the reader, or which he 
wishes to distinguish for any purpose. Small CAPriALS are introduced, gen- 
erally as a more emphatic indication of the same purpose ; and Capitals for 
a still more emphatic. Italics are represented in manuscript by a single 
line under the word or passage, small capitals by two lines, and capitals 
by three. 

N"oTE (a). — ^The word sentence is most loosely employed by grammarians. 
Sometimes it is used to express what we have thought it expedient to call 
in the course of the preceding treatise a pkoposition, avoiding the term sen- 
tence on account of the vague manner in which it is applied by most writers. 
Most generally the word sentence is used to signify so much of discourse as 
forming complete sense is closed by a full cadence in speaking, and by a 
period or full point in writing. Of such a sentence no good definition has 
been given, nor, we believe, can be given. It is essential to such an assem- 
blage of words that they should be fit to stand logically as well as gramma- 
tically independent, or form a sense. Sentence (sententia) from its etymology 
implies this. But whilst this condition is satisfied, authors and speakers are 
left at full liberty, especially in constructions consisting of an agglomeration 
of independent propositions, to include less or more matter in a sentence 
according to their own judgment or their caprice. Some divide that matter 
into several separate sentences separated by full points, which others separate 
only by semicolons — sometimes only by commas. 

There are strong objections to excessively long sentences, and to an un- 
varied succession of very long or very shprt sentences. But whilst a lucid 
grammatical structure is secured, the whole subject of long and short sen- 
tences comes under the supervision, not of the grammarian, but of the rheto- 



(57) Describe the purposes for which italics, synall capitals, and capitals, are occasioii- 
ally introduced in printing. 



§ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 551 

rician. It is not generally the mere length of a sentence, but the complica- 
tion and clumsy arrangement of its modifying members which produces 
obsciu'ity, and renders it faulty as a grammatical structure. Very long 
sentences are sometimes so carefully constructed as to be perfectly clear, and 
entirely unobjectionable in a grammatical point of view ; and, on the con- 
trary, short sentences do not always escape the charge of obscurity from 
faulty grammatical construction. 

Note (b). — It is important here to observe that pauses in discourse are 
employed for other purposes, besides that of indicating the grammatical divi- 
sions of discourse, whilst diacritical points are employed nearly exclusively 
for this last purpose. Pauses are often employed for rhetorical purposes, 
and for purposes connected with versification, where no pause is required 
to indicate any grammatical division, A suspension of the voice for the 
purpose of drawing breath may take place where there is no grammatical 
division in the construction, for example, between the subject and the pre- 
dicate ; and rhetorical pauses are often made for effect (to draw attention) 
between words which are in the closest grammatical union. This fact has 
been apparently overlooked by our writei*s on punctuation. You would 
suppose from their language that the points are used to represent the pauses 
in spoken discourse, instead of helping to exhibit the grammatical structure 
of discourse more clearly. So far as pauses in speech are used for the same 
purpose, points and pauses will naturally correspond with each other, being 
intended to mark the same distinctions, though the former are not to be re- 
garded as the representatives of the latter. But when it is attempted, for- 
getting the direct purpose of punctuation, to make it agree with the pauses 
throughout, we immediately involve ourselves, as was to be expected, in 
difficulties, and subject our rules and practice to a charge of inconsistency, 
by attempting to accommodate our system to two sets of laws which do not 
always coincide ; namely, the laws of grammatical construction, and the 
laws which regulate the pauses in human speech. We have an example ot 
this inconsistency in the rule given by some grammarians for placing a 
comma between the subject and predicate of a simple proposition, when the 
proposition happens to be long and the subject noun is accompanied with 
inseparable adjuncts. For instance, those who give this rule would place a 
comma before the verb is in the following proposition ; thus, " To be to- 
tally indifferent to praise and censure, is a real defect in character." This 
makes punctuation depend not on grammatical structure, but on the length 
of a proposition. Such punctuation capriciously separating the subject of a 
proposition from its predicate, is certainly not well calculated to assist the 
reader in readily ascertaining the sense of an author ; which is the great 
purpose of punctuation. We may in' this manner indicate where a pause or 
suspension of the voice may be made within a simple proposition with least 
injury to the expression of the sense ; but this is aside from the proper pur- 
pose aimed at by the punctuation used in our books. To indicate the places 



552 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [§ 160. 

in discourse, where pauses may be admitted, or perhaps required in order to a 
just elocution, would demand a distinct system of notation and various marks 
to represent pauses of different degrees of duration. It follows from this that 
the rules given in reference to the length of time, or the proportional time 
that we may pause at each of the several points, are utterly useless and un- 
founded. A speaker who would attempt to follow these rules, would render 
himself ridiculous. All this matter of pauses must be left to be regulated 
by the taste of good speakers and the laws of elocution. In order to main- 
tain consistency in punctuation, we must regard the sense and grammatical 
structure, and these only, and guard against considering points as the mere 
representatives of pauses. We have had occasion to notice that the dash is 
sometimes used to represent a pause where there is no break in the sense. 
We here submit another example of this use. 

" Is it like ? like whom ? 
The things that mount the rostrum with a skip, 
And then — skip down again." 

Note (c). — The system of punctuation, it seems to us, is not yet satisfac- 
torily settled. Perhaps, a deeper knowledge of the structure of language, 
than can be acquired from the grammars hitherto in use, is necessary before 
this can be effected. In the preceding note we have adverted to the confu- 
sion which has arisen from regarding diacritical 7narks as the direct signs ol 
pauses, and consequently assuming that a point may be placed wherever a 
pause is proper or allowable in speaking. We have also noticed, in treat- 
ing of the punctuation of compound propositions, that, in many cases, it is 
not settled by unvarying usage whether a comma should, or should not be 
introduced between a principal proposition and its accessory. We have not 
proposed to ourselves to give a complete or improved system of punctuation 
in this appendix. The attempt to introduce such a system would, as we 
think, oblige us to propose important innovations — innovations which we 
have no hope that we could influence the public generally to adopt. And 
this is one of those things in which universal agreement is of more import- 
ance, than that the method on which we agree should be the best conceiva- 
ble. All we have aimed to accomplish is to put the student in possession of 
the rules at present followed by authors and printers, as well as we can 
within a narrow space. 

We believe that the most effective method of teaching the use of the 
comma (and this is both the most important, and the most difficult part of 
punctuation), is that which we have adopted ; viz., by pointing out to the 
learner, in the construction of the several classes of compound and combined 
propositions, in the connection of contracted accessories, of co-ordinate mem- 
bers of propositions and of co-ordinate complements, where a comma is 
commonly used, where it is not used, and where the usage is unsettled. 

We may be allowed to suggest, as the first and most important step to- 



§160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 653 

wards the formation of a complete and consistent method of punctuation, 
the introduction of a point to be employed exclusively in separating princi- 
pal and accessory propositions in compound constructions. If we had a 
sign always used for this and for no other purpose, the rules of punctuation 
might be greatly simplified, whilst the use of points would, we think, con- 
tribute much more than under the present system (or systems, for universal 
agreement is wanting) to the perspicxiity of discourse. Every proposition 
of every kind could then be separated from all other propositions, con- 
tracted propositions and words which do not perform a function in propo- 
sitions or in connecting propositions. The separation between accessory 
and principal propositions could be indicated by a new mark (say by a 
mark like an accent, such as the Germans use for a comma, thus ( ^ ), and the 
separation between independent propositions, members, &e., as at present, 
by commas. The use of the other points, the semicolon, colon, &c., would 
require little change or modification. 

There are, as it appears to us, only two principles on which a consistent 
method of punctuation can be based ; namely, the principle that every pro- 
position of every kind is to be distinguished from all other proposition^, &c., 
or the principle that only independent assertions with all their modifications, 
however numerous, and whether consisting of single words or of proposi- 
tions, are to be separated from one another by punctuation. To adopt this 
last principle would greatly abridge the use of punctuation in complicated 
constructions — the very case in which its service seems most necessary. If 
the principle last mentioned cannot, for the reason now indicated, be admit- 
ted, we must choose between making the effort necessary to introduce the 
system sketched above, and following the present inconsistent and perplexed 
method, equally difficult for the teacher to explain, and the scholar to un- 
derstand and apply in actual practice. 



APPEXDIX OX YERSIFICATIOX. 



§161. (1) English verse is distinguished from prose by a fixed or- 
der of succession of strong and weak syllables, by the recurrence of 
pauses at measured distances, and the recurrence of sounds chiming 
with each other at some of these pauses. (2) In other words, the 
elements of English verse, as distinguished from prose, are — 1st. Metee ; 
2d. Pauses at measueed dista^:ce3 ; 3d. EnTiiE. (3) The first and 
second of these elements are essential^ the third is not essential : it 
does not accompany all our verse, though it is a constituent of a large 
proportion of English poetry. 

(4) Such a portion as forms a complete specimen of the law of suc- 
cession of weah and strong syllables in any species of verse is called a 
METEE or MEASUEE or EOOT, becausc it is employed to measure the par- 
ticular kind of verse which consists of a repetition of this foot or mea- 
sure. (5) By these two cu-cumstances, viz. the nature of tlie measure.^ 
and the numher of times it is repeated, in a single verse., together with 
the fact of the presence or absence of rJiyrne.^ the various species of 
English verse are distinguished from each other. 

(6) We shall indicate the strong syllables, which enter into metres, 
by the symbol (-) placed over them, and the iceah syllables by the 
symbol (—) ; thus, dsjject. rq^eat^ <fcc. 

iS'oTE. — AVe have assumed the same names to distinguish measures or 
feet which are employed by writei-s on Greek and Latin vei'sifieation, and 
the same marks to indicate the different kinds of syllables which enter into 
the sevei-al measures. But these names and these marks do not indicate the 



§ 161. (1) ilention the circnmstances by -which English verse is distinsaislied from 
prose. (2) Eepeat the names of the three elements of English Terse. (3) Which of these 
elements are essential to verse ? 

(4) Describe a metre, measure or foot In verse. (5) Ho-w are the various species of 
English verse distinguished ? 

(6) By what symbols are strong and weak syllables distinguished ? 



§ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 555 

same things in treating of English versification or other modern species of 
versification and in treating of ancient Greek and Latin versification. Mea- 
sures, and, consequently verse, in these ancient languages consist of long and 
short syllables, and in treating of the versification of these languages the 
symbol (-) is used to indicate a long (not a strong) syllable, and the symbol 
(— ') to indicate a short (not a weak) syllable. The melody of ancient verse 
is founded mainly on the metrical succession of syllables distinguished by 
the time which they occupy in pronunciation; or what, in treatises on 
prosody, is called quanttty (i. e. the relative length of syllables). (7) The 
melody of English verse is founded mainly on a succession of strong and 
weak syllables ; or on what is sometimes called beat, or, perhaps not altoge- 
ther correctly, accent ; in other words, on the relative force of syllables or 
sounds. 

(8) It may as well be observed here, that good measure or the perfect 
heat of verse does not depend upon the absolute force of the individual syl- 
lables employed, but on their force relatively to the syllables with which 
they are matched in the same measure ov foot Hence it often occurs, in 
the connection of monosyllabic words in one metre, that the same word 
(according as it is matched with a weaker or a stronger syllable, that is with 
a word that demands greater or lesser force in pronunciation) occupies 
sometimes the place of a strong, sometimes the place of a weak syllable. 

(9) Versification is perfect, so far as concerns measure, when the arrange- 
ment of the words in a verse is such that, regarded as mere prose, the re- 
lative force which the syllables demand for correct pronimciation corresponds 
with the demands of the measure of the verse ; in other words, when good 
pronunciation of a passage naturally produces metrical melody. To this we 
may add that the perfection of verse, as regards pauses, consists in so arrang- 
ing the words that the metrical pauses demanded by the laws of the verse 
shall occm* at places where a pause is allowable without injury to the sense. 
"When in both these respects the demands of the particular measure and 
form of verse are complied with, without greater departure from the ordi- 
nary grammatical arrangement of language than is allowable and becom- 
ing in poetical compositions, the versification is good, so far as regards all 
but rhyme (if rhyme is present). The demands of rhyme we shall consider 
presently. 

1st. Measuee. — (10) There occur in our language four principal 
kinds of metre or measure^ and these are distinguished by the names 



(7) On what is the melody of English verse mainly founded ? 

(8) Eepeat the observation in reference to what good measure depends upon. 

(9) State the substance of what is said in reference to the constituents of good versifica- 
tion. 

(10) How many distinct species of measure occur in the English language ? "What are 
their names ? (11) Eepeat the names given to the single measures. 



566 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [§ 161. 

IAMBIC MEASUEE, TEOCHAIO MEASUEE, ANAPAESTIC IVIEASUEE and DAC- 
TYLIC MEASUEE. (11) A single Iambic measure is usually called an 
Iambus ; a single Trochaic measure, a Trochee ; a single Anapaestic 
measure, an Anapaest; and a single Dactylic measure, a Dactyle. 

(12) An IAMBIC MEASUEE or EOOT cousists of a weah syllable fol- 
lowed by a strong syllable whether in the same or in diiferent words. 
"We may give as examples the words, repeat^ respond^ and the combi- 
nations, the wind^ a gem^ an hour^ at home^ &c. (13) A single iambic 
measure is represented by the symbols (^-). 

(14) Remarlc. — Any two successive syllables of which the second 
is sufficiently distinguished from the first by the relative degree of 
force which it requires in pronunciation may be regarded as form- 
ing an ianibus. 

(15) A TEOCHAIO FOOT or MEASUEE couslsts of a stroug syllable fol- 
lowed by a weaTc one, as in the words, stranger^ Tlctor^ nature. A 
trochee may be formed of two monosyllables, or of any two successive 
syllables of a word of more than two syllables, when the first of these 
syllables must, in accordance with the sense of the passage and the 
proper accentuation of the words, be pronounced with considerably 
greater force than the second. The symbols which represent the 
trochee are (-^). 

(16) A single anapaestic measuee or anapaest consists of two 
wealc syllables followed by one strong syllable. There are few single 
words in our language which serve as good examples of an anapaest. 
Colondde and Lebanon^ have been used by the poets as anapaests. 
Generally anapaests are constituted in the English language of sylla- 
bles from more than one word. This measure is represented by the 
symbols (-'^-). 

(17) A dactyle consists of one strong syllable followed by two 
weaTc syllables. "We may give as examples the words sensifble, crucible, 
&c. It is represented thus (-■~^^). 

* (18) "We may exhibit along with these two other feet, which, though 
they do not alone (indeed cannot) form, or give name to any species of Eng- 

(12) Of what does an iambic foot consist ? Give an example. (13) What symbol repre- 
sents it ? 

(14) Eepeat the remark about the formation of an iambus. 

(15) Describe a trochaic foot ; give examples ; repeat remark ; tell how it is represented 
by symbols. 

(16) How is the anapaestic measure constituted ? Adduce examples ; tell how this 
measure is generally formed in English, and how represented by symbols. 

(17) Describe the dactyle ; give examples ; tell how it is represented. 

(18) State the substance of what js said about two other feet. 



§161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 557 

lish verse, are often used as occasional substitutes for some of the feet al- 
ready described. These are called the spondee ( — ), consisting of two strong 
syllables ; and the pyrrhic {^ -'), consisting of tvvo weak syllables. Some 
call these secondary feet. 

We exhibit all these feet together in the following table : 
Iambus^- Trochee-^ 

Anapaest ^^- Dactyle - w -^ 
Pyrrhic ^ ^ Spondee — 

ISToTE. — Some introduce a third trisyllabic foot, the amphibrach ^-^ con- 
sisting of a strong syllable flanked by two weak ones. We think it unne- 
cessary to introduce this either as a primary or a secondary measure. Most 
of the examples adduced of its use come under the class of mere double 
rhymes at the end of iambic verses. Such verses as the first and third in the 
following four from Burns ought, if we have regard to rhyme, to be written 
each as two verses, consisting of a single iambus with an additional weak 
syllable, and having, as all iambics ending with a weak syllable must have, 
double rhymes. 

" It warms me, it charms me, 
To mention but her name ; 
It heats me, it beats me. 
And sets me a' on flame." 
To exhibit the rhymes we must write thus : 
" It warms me. 
It charms me. 
To mention but her name:" &c. 
The examples of measure consisting of amphibrachs selected by Dr. 
Latham {Eng. gram. pp. 204-206) we should regard as anapaests having an 
iambus substituted for the first foot. This substitution is common, even in 
the purest specimens of anapaestic measure. {See Beanie's Hermit.) The 
movements in such verses as, 

" I've found [ oiit a gift | for my fair ; 

I've found where the wood pigeons breed :" &c. 
is surely undistinguishable from the anapaestic movement. The lines, we 
think, are more properly printed thus, 

" I have found } oiit a gift | for my fair ;" &c. 
in which form they appear to be what they really are — pure anapaests. 
Dr. Latham seems to have presented the lines in a form to suit his purpose. 

That the anapaest and iambic admit readily of interchange we shall have 
occasion again to observe. ' 

(19) Yerses formed of iambic measures may be said to have iam- 
(19) Repeat what is said of the diflFerent species of movement, or rlvythm of verse. 



558 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [§ 161. 

Mc movement^ or ianibic rhythm; verses formed of trochees^ oi anapaests^ 
of dactyles, trochaic^ anapaestic and dactylic movement respectively. 

Remaeks. — (20) These different movements or species of rhythm af- 
fect the ear and mind very differently, and are conseqnently, suited to 
different classes of subjects. The ana^jaestic and dactylic measures 
having two weaTc (or light) syllables to each strong (or heavy) syllable, 
may be regarded as less adapted to grave and solemn subjects than the 
other measures. The iambic seems of all our English measures the one 
best adapted to solemn subjects. The poets in choosing measures have 
not always attended sufficiently to these facts. 

2d. Pauses. — (21) A pause or rest of the voice determines the end 
of a verse. This is usually called t\\Q final pause of a verse. (22) The 
place of this pause is marked in written verse by turning to a new line, 
each separate verse being contained in a separate line. 

JSToTE. — The name verse has originated from this fact : Verse (in Latin 
versus) means a turning, so called because the end of it is indicated by turn- 
ing back to a new line. 

(23) But, besides the pause in reading which marks the termination 
of a verse, other pauses occur in the course of each verse, of consider- 
able length. These (at least the chief pauses of this kind in each 
verse), are called ccesural pauses, because they cut the verse. We shall 
have more to say of these pauses, when we come to treat of the 
number of measures, or feet contained in a verse. 

IfoTE. — The word verse is often employed in ordinary language as the 
name of what is more definitely called a stanza. At the end of a stanza, as 
at the end of a verse properly so called, there is a turning, but, in this case, 
a turning not only to another line, but to the recommencement of a form 
of poetical composition consisting of a number of verses arranged in a fixed 
order. 

Verse is also employed as the name of a well-known division of the Sa- 
cred Scriptures, adopted in modern times for the purpose of securing easy 
reference to any particular passage. These divisions are called verses, because 
in most printed editions each of them begins on a new line, and consequently 
there is a turning (versus) at their termination. 

3d. Ehtme. — (24) Rhyme consists in a certain correspondence of 
sounds, or the chiming of the last syllables of two or more verses with 
one another. For example : 

(20) Eepeat the substance of the remark in reference to different species of rhythm. 

(21) What is said of the final pause ? (22) Yiovr is its place indicated ia written poetry ? 

(23) Kepeat what is said of the casural pause. 

(24) What constitutes rhyme?- Illustrate by an example. 



§ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 659 

" As some tall cliff that lifts its awful /oraz, 
Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, 
Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread^ 
Eternal sunshine settles on its heady 
At the close of these verses the words "form" and "storm " rhyme 
with each other ; and in like manner " spread " and " head." Endings 
like these are called rhymes. 

(25) Three things are essential to perfect rhymes : the syllables 
which constitute such rhymes must be strong (heavy), or, generally 
speaking, what are called accented syllables ; the vowel sounds of these 
syllables and the modifying consonantal sounds which follow them, 
when these syllables are closed by consonants, must be the same ; and, 
lastly, the consonantal modifications which precede the vowel sounds 
must be different. Thus, in the rhymes closing the first two lines of 
the above example, the vowel sound in form is the same as in storm; 
the consonantal modification which follows is the same in both cases, 
namely, the modification represented by the consonants rm ; and the 
modificatrons which precede the vowel sound are difierent, being the 
modification represented by the letter /in one verse, and that repre- 
sented by st in the other. In other words, syllables, to form perfect 
rhymes, must end with the same vowel sound, closing (if modified in 
the close) with similar modifications, and must be unlike in their com- 
mencement. The last mentioned circumstance is indispensable to a 
good rhyme. Every one will discover the awkwardness in the rhymes 
of the following verses from Spenser ; 

"Dan Chaucer, well of English unde//Ze^, 
On fame's eternall beadroll worthie to "b^fyledP 

Note. — It is to be observed that many of the rhymes employed in verse 
do not conform perfectly to these conditions. The poets feel themselves often 
compelled to have recourse to imperfect rhymes, that is, rhymes formed with 
syllables in which the vowel sounds and the following consonants are not 
precisely the same, but more or less similar. But the more perfect the 
rhymes, the more pleasing the versification, so far as rhyme is concerned. 
The frequent recurrence of imperfect rhpnes, especially of rhymes very im- 
perfect (for the imperfection of rhyme admits of various degrees), is a great 
blemish in poetical compositions. Rhyme may be regarded as an ornament ; 
and every thing intended as an ornament, if not excellent of its kind, utter- 
ly fails of its pm-pose. 



(25) Mention three things essential to perfect rhymes, and illustrate by reference to the 
example given above. 



560 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [§ 161. 

It ought to be remarked that rhymes which, when written, seem perfect 
to the eje, are not always perfect to the ear. If we would form good 
rhymes, we must attend exclusively to sound and not to orthography. 
Examples : head and bead are not perfect rhymes, while head and bed (though 
unlike in writing), are perfect rhymes. 

(26) " An accented syllable followed by an unaccented one, and 
coming under the condition given above " (namely, that the accented 
vowel sound and all that follows it shall be the same^ and what precedes 
diverse), " constitutes a double rhyme." — ^Latham's Eng. Gram. p. 187. 
Examples : 

" So she strove against her weakness^'' 
"Shaped her heart with woman's meeJcness P'' 
" "When the praise thou meetest 
To thine ear is sweetest, 
Oh! then remember me." 
See other examples in the verses quoted from Burns in a preceding 
note : " It icarms me," &c. 

(27) In the same manner, a strong syllable followed by two weak 
syllables, coming under the same condition, constitutes a triple rhyme. 
Such rhymes rarely occur in serious poetry. Mr. Moore has intro- 
duced a whimsical assortment of them in some of his satirical pieces. 
For example : 

" I suspect the word ' crucified ' must be made ' crucible,'' 

Before this fine image of mine is ■producible.''^ 
" Who lived just to witness the Deluge — was gratified 

Much by the sight, and has since been found stratified^ 

It now remains to exhibit some of the principal kinds of English 
verse formed by the combination of the three elements considered ; 
namely, the several species of measure variously repeated, pauses and 
rhyme, 

1st. Iambic Measuees. — (28) By far the largest proportion of our 
English poetry consists of iamMc measures; and of English iambic 
poetry far the largest proportion consists of verses containing each 
five measures ; in other words, verses containing ten syllables alter- 
nately weak and strong, commencing with a wealc and ending with a 
strong syllable. This verse may be called Iambic Pentameter = 

(26) Describe douUe rhymes, and repeat examples. 

(27) Describe triple rhymes, and repeat examples. 

(28) Eepeat the remark about the prevalence of iambic measure in English poetry. 



§ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 561 

Iambic five metre veese. It is often called Heeoio yeese, because 
Heroic or Epic Poetry is written in this verse. 

(29) The following scale represents this species of verse so far as 
regards the measures or feet : 



(30) Nearly aU the verse without rhyme in our language is of 
this form. Such verse for the sake of distinction is called blank 
veese. Much of our ryhme verse is of the same form. To distinguish 
this from Manic verse, it is sometimes called rhyme. 

(31) A perfectly regular verse of this kind, besides admittiug a 
final pause without violence to the grammatical arrangement and 
sense of the language, should also admit a pause either after the second 
or third measure or between the syllables of the third measure. That 
is, one or other of these places should coincide with the ending of a 
word which can, without impropriety, be separated from the following 
word by a moderate pause. When a pause is not only alloioalle, but 
demanded by the sense, the l)eauty of the verse is enhanced. 

K'oTE. — ^Thia ccesural or principal pause is sometimes deferred, both in 
rhyme and blank verse, till we come to the middle of the fourth foot ; some- 
times again it occurs (all that is allowed for it), so early as the middle of the 
second foot. These pauses have a less pleasing effect — are less melodious than 
the three legitimate pauses first mentioned. This failure of melody is more 
perceptible in rhyme, especially in heroic couplets, than in blank verse. In 
blank verse the only ceesural pause occurs sometimes even so early as after 
the first, and again, so late as after the fourth measure. Such unequal divis- 
ion of the verse injures the melody, and if too frequently repeated, detracts 
greatly from the pleasure which good versification yields, A Utile harshness 
when it does not recur too often, may contribute to variety. When the 
ccesural pause falls so near the beginning or the end of the verse, the final 
pause in reading sometimes becomes scarcely perceptible, so that the hearer 
cannot always distinguish where a verse ends ; especially when the reader 
takcvS care not to sacrifice the sense to the melody. All really good readers 
and reciters of blank verse follow the sense in the employment of pauses, 
leaving the poet himself to look out for the melody. 

(32) "Besides the csesural pause each verse of this form usually ad- 
raits of one — generally of more than one secondary pause. Much of the 



(29) Write a copy of the scale and explain it. 

(30) Eepeat what is said about verse without rhyme. How is it named ? 

(31) Eepeat the substance of the remarks on the pauses of this kind of verse. 

(32) "What is said of secondary pauses ? 



562 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [ §161' 

melody both of blank verse and rhyme depends upon the proper ad- 
justiuent of the pauses of the versification so as to accord with the 
pauses which the sense requires, or, at least, readily admits. (33} We 
submit a few examples of Mank verse, marking the chief (cassural; pause 
by two perpendicular lines. We give alse a scale over these verses. 

Ye no|ble few ! 1| who here | unbend|ing stand 
Beneath ] life's pres|sure, || yet ] bear up | a while, 
And what | your bound|ed view, I which onjly saw 
A litltle part, I deemed evlil is ] no more : 
The storms | of win [try Time | will quickjly pass, 
And one | unboundled Spring I enjcirlcle alL 

The melody of the verse depends greatly on the degree in which a 
marked contrast between the weak and strong syllables is attained by 
the arrangement. Observe as an illustration the superior melody and 
beauty of the fifth line, " The storms," &c. The strong syllables are 
all dxcidedly strong (not merely allowed through courtesy to the poet 
to pass as such), in contrast with the weak ones. In these lines we 
have three examples of the substitution of a spondee ( — ) for the 
iamius. The second and fourth measures of the second verse, and the 
third measure of the fourth verse ought to be read as spondees, if we 
pay regard to the proper force of the syllables. 

(34) Besides the spondee, blank verse freely admits the trochee 
(an equivalent measure, but with contrary movement), especially in 
the first place. Examples : 

" Thick as \ autumlnal leaves \ that strew | the brooks." 

" Sweet Is 1 the breath of morn, || her rising sweet." 

A pyrrhic {^^) is also found in the first and sometimes in other 
places, and often followed by a spondee as compensation^ the two to- 
gether being equal to two iambic measures = two weak and two 
strong syllables. Example : 

With the 1 fixed stars, \\ fixed in ] their Orb | that flies." 

The anapssst (^ ^ -) is also freely admitted (we believe in all places) 
in blank verse, and imparts what some consider a pleasing variety to 
the measure. The anapaest, though difiering in measure, resembles 



(33) Copy the verses given as examples with scale, and repeat the remarks made upon 
them. 

(34) Tell what other measures may be substituted for the iamdus, and illustrate by ex- 
amples. 



§ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 563 

the iambus in movement, as it commences with weak, and terminates 
in a strong syllable. When the anapaest is introduced the number of 
syllables in the line is increased beyond ten. The introduction of 
other feet as substitutes for the iambus does not increase the number 
of syllables. In the following verses we have examples of anapiests 
substituted for iambic measures. 

"Now morn | her rOs|y steps || in the eas\teni clime." 
"He scarce 1 lu'id ceased, || when the [ s\i])er\idr fiend 

"Was mov]ing toward 1 the shore: |1 his i)0n\der6us sMeld^^'' &c. 
" To s\3,v\ery prone, \\ and bade \ thee rise j again." 
"By liklening spir|itiial || to | corpOr|eal forms." 

]N"oTE. — In the last verse, if we pronounce "likening" and "spiritual" as 
words of three syllables, and " corporeal " as a word of four syllables, we 
shall have three anapaests ; which we think two more than enough in one 
verse. If we pronounce " spiritual " as a word of four syllables, as it is pro- 
nounced in prose, we shall have four weak syllables (for " to " in that case 
ought to be reckoned weak) instead of an iambus. Perhaps the best way of 
pronouncing the verse is according to the scale which we have placed over 
it, though "to," we admit, does not well support the dignity of a strong 
syllable. In some of the examples, it will be observed that there is a hiatus, 
or concurrence of vowels between the weak syllables of the anapaest : that 
is, the first weak syllable terminates in a vowel, and the second commences 
with a vowel. These vowels might be allowed to coalesce into a single syl- 
lable, in which case the anapaest becomes an iambus. Thus, if in the first 
verse above we allow the e of the word " the " to coalesce in prommciation 
with the sound of ea in " eastern," " in th' eastern clime " will form two 
regular iambic measures. In a similar way, if in the next verse we pro- 
nounce " superior " as a word of three syllables (superyor), the anapaest dis- 
appears. It is much best in all such cases to pronounce all the syllables 
(perhaps a little more slightly and quickly than in prose) and class the 
measure as a substituted anapaest, or secondary foot. By this course, instead 
of detracting from the beauty of the versification, we improve it by intro- 
ducing greater variety. The poet would not thank us for any effort made 
to reduce his verses in recitation to uniform iambic measures. For similar 
reasons, we would pronounce as well as write such words as slavery, poti- 
derous, dangerous, always as three syllables, sounding lightly the middle 
syllable. In some editions we find the last two printed "pond'rous," 
" dang'rous" in situations like that in which ponderous occurs in one of the 
above verses. This mode of printing is wholly unnecessary, in whatever 
way we may choose to pronounce the words. It is altogether improper, if 
the views above stated are correct ; and they accord, we believe, with those 
of the best poets, prosodians, and readers of poetry. It is the common erros* 



564 APPENDIX ON VERSIPICATION. [§ 161. 

of careless and inexperienced readers of verse to yield themselves to the 
prevalent measure and movement, and thus force all the syllables, in viola- 
tion of the rules of correct pronunciation and correct emphasis, into strict 
accordance with this prevalent measure, obliterating every trace of the 
secondary or substituted measui'es. 

The chief poems written in blank vei'se are Milton's Paradise Lost, 
Thomson's Seasons, Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination, Young's 
Night Thoughts, and Cowper's Task. Milton, Thomson, and Akenside 
appear to be the great masters of this species of verse. 

(35) The analysis or dividing of verse into the separate feet or 
measures of which it is composed is called scanning or scansion of 
verse. In performing this exercise the learner pronounces the syllables 
which form each single measure separately, at the same time naming 
the measure; thus, "Sweet is'- trocJiee^ "the breath " mmJi^^s, "of 
morn" iamtus^ caesural pause, "herris-" iambus^ " ing sweet," iambus. 

The best form of exercise is to copy a number of verses from some in- 
teresting piece of poetry, and apply a scale to each verse (as we have done 
in the examples given above), exhibiting all the measures and pauses. 

The method which we would advise to be pursued in order to obtain 
a correct knowledge of versification with the least expenditure of time and 
labor, is to continue the analysis of one kind of verse, say of the iambic 
pentameter, till the learner becomes perfectly acquainted with it. After 
this, the other varieties of verse will present very little difficulty. 

It is shameful that the subject of English versification is so much neg- 
lected in our schools. It is a curious and interesting subject. Some know- 
ledge of it is important to all who read poetry aloud, if it were only to 
guard them from being led into a sing sojig mode of recitation by servilely 
yielding to the general movement of the measures, and overlooking the 
secondary or substituted measures. Only a few hours' study are required 
to obtain a satisfactory knowledge of this curious art, through which so 
much has been contributed to the higher and more refined pleasures of 
mankind in all ages. 

Iambic Pentameters with ehtme. — (36) As Iambic Pentameters 
with rhyme do not differ essentially either as to pauses or measures from 
blank verse, it is necessary to do little more in treating this subject 
than to exhibit specimens of the several divisions of this kind of verse 
in reference to the order of the rhymes. 

Heeoic Couplets. — (37) The most common species of rhymed pen- 



(36) What is said of the analysis or scanning of verse ? What form of exercise is re- 
oomniended ? And what method of studying versification ? 

(36) What remark is made in reference to iambic pentameters -with rJii 
(8T) Eepeat what is said of heroic couplets. 



§ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 565 

tameters in the English language is what is commonly called the 
Heroic Couplet. This couplet consists of two verses rhyming with each 
other. In poems composed of these couplets the first verse and second 
rhyme with each other ; the third and fourth, with each other ; and 
so on of all the rest in succession. (38) Sometimes three verses 
rhyme together. Such verses are called IViplets, and are sometimes 
indicated by a irace uniting them. 

Yerses of this kind are written and printed in unbroken succes- 
sion. 

(39) We have already given a specimen of Heroic Couplets in 
treating of Ehyme : " As some tall rock," &c. We submit others. 
" Of all J the caujses, || that ] conspire | to dlind 
Man's erlring judgment | and misguide the mind^ 
What the | weak head || with strongest bias rules^ 
Is pride, f the never-failing vice of /coZs." 
" So, pleased | at first, | the t5w[ering Alps \ we try. 
Mount o'er | the vales, 1| and seem to tread the sJcy ; 
The eterjnal snows || appear already past, 
And the | first clouds | and mountains seem the last : 
But those attained, | we tremble to survey, 
The growing labors || of the lengthened way ; 
The increasjing prospect || tires our wondjering eyes, 
Hills peep [ o'er hills, || and Alps on Alps arise.'''' 

IN'oTE. — If we examine these verses, we shall find that a similar liberty 
of introducing other than iambic measures is allowed here as in blank 
verse ; but it is not allowed in so great a degree. Good poets generally 
arrange verses of this kind so that each couplet expresses (as in the last ex- 
tract) a complete thought. 

Much of the beauty of this species of verse depends upon the skilful 
management of the csesural pauses. These should rarely fall at any other 
places, except those which we have pointed out as the regular places ; 
viz., the end of the second, the middle of the third, and the end of the 
third measure. It will be found by comparing the verses above, that 
the melody is sensibly affected by the place of the pause. For fuller in- 
formation on this subject, the reader is referred to the acute and judi- 
cious observations of Lord Kames on English Heroic Verse. (See Kames' 
Elements of Criticism, ch. xviii., sect. 4.) 

Lord Kames has examined with care the question as to what words do 

(38) Eepeat what is said of triplets. What is said of the manner in which couplets are 
written ? 

(89) With a written copy of these verses in his hand, let the student point out the 
pauses, secondary measures, &c. 



566 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [§161, 

not gracefully and without violence to sense and grammar admit a ccesural 
pause between them. The result of his inquiry on this matter is that pauses 
cannot, without manifest detraction from the perfection of the verse, occur 
between words used exclusively for the purpose of modification (adjectives 
and adverbs) and their principal word, when the modifying word precedes 
the principal. The reason is that such modifying words express no com- 
plete conception of themselves, and a pause or rest of the voice cannot with 
propriety take place except where a complete conception at least, if not a com- 
plete proposition, is presented for the hearer's mind to repose on. For the 
same reason a pause should not come between a preposition and the noun 
which it precedes, or between a conjunction and that which follows it. On 
the contrary there is not the same objection to the intervention of a pause, 
when the principal word precedes the modifying word. A pause is allow- 
able between subject and verb ; and even between the verb and its objective 
modification, though it is less proper here. These principles are often vio- 
lated by the poets, not without detrhnent to the verse. We refer for details 
to the place above cited. We add here an example of a Triplet, and exam- 
ples of verses with double rhymes. Verses of this last description contain, 
as a matter of course, an additional syllable. They are rare in iambic pen- 
tameters. 

" Thou paint'st as we describe, || improving still. 

When on wild nature || we ingraft our skill ; 

But not creating beauties at our will." 

To draw fresh colors from the YQVJxal flowers ; 

To steal from rainbows, ere they drop their showers." 
" The meeting points the sacred hair di&sever 

From her fair head for ever and for ever." 

(40) The Elegiag Stanza. — The Elegiac Stanza^ so called, be- 
cause it is generally employed for mournful subjects, consists of iamhic 
pentameters with alternate rl^jmes, the first verse rhyming witli the 
third and the second with the fourth. The stanzas are separated in 
printing by spaces. We have a beautiful and well known specimen of 
Elegiac verse in Gray's Elegy written in a country church-yard. We 
present a single stanza as an example. 

" Can storied urn, f or animated lust.^ 
Back to its mansion || call the fleeting Ireath ? 
Can honor's voice \ provoke the silent dust., 
Or flatjtery soothe || the dull cold ear of deathV^ 

(41) The Spenseeian Stanza. — This beautiful stanza consists of 

(40) Describe the elegiac stanza, and point out the syllables which rhyme with each 
other in the example. 

(41) Describe the Spenserian stanza ; tell the origin of the name ; mention some of 



§ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 567 

eight iambic pentameter verses, and a closing iambic hexameter or 
Alexandrine verse containing six iambic measm-es. The rhymes of 
the eight pentameters are alternate, and the ninth or Alexandrine 
verse rhymes with the eighth and sixth verses. We present an ex- 
ample from Spenser, from whom the verse receives its name, and 
another from Thomson. Some of the most beautiful poetry in our 
language is written in this stanza, including Spenser's Faerie Queene, 
Thomson's Castle of Indolence, Beattie's Minstrel, and Lord Byron's 
Childe Harold. The same rules apply to the measures and pauses as to 
other iambic pentameters. 

" How oft do they their silver bowers leaxe 
To come to succour us that succour want ! 
How oft do they with golden pineons cleave 
The flitting skyes, like flying pursui^an^, 
Against fowle feendes to ayd us militant! 
They for us fight, they watch and dewly ward^ 
And their bright squadrons round about us plant ; 
And all for love and nothing for reward : 
O, why should hevenly God to men have such regard .'" 

Faerie Queene, B. II. Cant. 8 : 2. 
" I care not, Fortune, what you me deny : 
You cannot rob me of free nature's grace ; 
You cannot shut the windows of the sky. 
Through which Aurora shows her brightening face J 
You cannot bar my constant feet to trace 
The woods and lawns, by living stream at eve : 
Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace, 
And I their toys to the great children leave : 
Of fancy, reason, virtue, naught can me bereave." 

Castle of Indolence, Cant. II. 3. 
(42) The Sonnet. — The sonnet consists of fourteen iambic penta- 
meters. As generally written by Petrarch, the great master of this 
species of poetical composition, the first verse rhymes with the fourth ; 
the second with the third ; the fifth with the eighth ; and the sixth 
with the seventh. 

Note. — In many modern English sonnets these eight verses are con- 
structed with alternate rhymes ; and this is certainly an improvement as 
regards melody, if any thing can improve this stiff, pedantic, exotic form of 

the chief poems written in this stanza; analyze the examples, marking pauses and measures 
and noting secondary and faulty rhymes if such can be found. 

(42) Describe the sonnet, and repeat the substance of what is said of it 



568 APPE^^)IX ox VERSiricATio>'. [§ 161. 

poetical composition. In vei'ses arranged in the fii-st "way, so that bet^ween 
a pair of rhymes designed to correspond two rhyming Tei-ses shall inter- 
vene, the labor of seeking rhymes, at least, so far as regards the first and 
fomth verses, appears to ns something worse than throvrn away. Such 
rhymes, we think, detract from the melody of the measure and are much 
less pleasing to the ear than mere blank verse. "We believe this to be the 
main cause of the unpopularity of the sonnet. "We think it strange that 
Mr. Tennyson should have adopted a stanza with this most unmusical ar- 
rangement of rhymes in his "In Meraoriam." 

The six reinaining verses of the sonnet Iiave generally alternate 
rlivmes. Often in Petrarch the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth accord 
with each other in rhyme, and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth in 
like manner. Sometimes the ninth is made to rhyme with the 
twelfth ; the tenth, with the thirteenth ; and the eleventh, with the 
fourteenth : with the sole design, one would be tempted to think, of 
rendering the rhymes as little perceptible and as little agreeable to the 
ear as possible, after the poet has taken all the pains necessary to find 
them. There is however great variety in the mode of arranging the 
rhymes of the concluding six verses of the sonnet ; but aU varieties 
are inferior to the arrangement first mentioned ; each seems to vie 
with the others in the trial which shall be least melodious. We select 
a sonnet as an example from Wordsworth : 

'" MrXABILITY.''' 

^ " From low to high doth dissolution climb. 
And sinks from high to low, along a scale 
Of awful notes, whose concord shall not fail ; 
A musical but melancholy chime, 

Which they can hear who meddle not with crime, 
Xor avarice, nor over-anxious care. 
Truth fails not ; but her outward forms that bear 
The longest date do melt like frosty rime, 

That in the morning whitened hill and plain 
And is no more ; drop hke the tower subhme 
Of yesterday, which royally did wear 
Its crown of weeds, but could not even sustain 
Some casual shout that broke the silent air, 
Or the unimaginable touch of Time." 

The rhymes in the last six verses of this sonnet are in some respects 
worse than those which we have described above as most prevalent in 
Petrarch. What ear can appreciate any chime between " sublime " in the 
tenth verse, and "Time" in the fourteenth, at the distance of four vei'ses? 



§ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 569 

The sonnet appears to us a most capriciously contrived unnatural poeti- 
cal structure, with nothing to recommend it, save the unprofitable labor 
which it costs the poet. To increase this labor each sonnet, according to 
the law of the composition, should contain a complete subject, and only one 
subject. Few of our English poets have succeeded in the difficult cultiva- 
tion of this exotic. Even when sonnets are good, the repetition of them 
soon becomes monotonous to the reader. It is not so with the truly beauti- 
ful native Spenserian stanza. 

It now remains that we submit examples of the other more impor- 
tant kinds of iambic verse, and of anap^stic and trochaic verse. It 
is unnecessary for our purpose, in a brief sketch like this, to accompa- 
ny these examples with many remarks. If the student has completely 
mastered what precedes and applied himself faithfully to the analysis 
of iambic pentameters, other species of versification will give him little 
trouble. 

Iambic teese of four measuees. — After the form of verse which 
we have been considering, iambic verse of four measures or feet is by 
far the most prevalent in our language. Some call this Iambic Tetra- 
meter. (43) This is always accompanied with rhyme. Sometimes 
the rhymes are consecutive, like those of the heroic couplets, some- 
times alternate, like the elegiac stanza. In the first case, as in the 
heroic couplets, the verses are written consecutively, in the second, 
as in elegiac verse, in stanzas. "We submit examples. 
" The wild I rose, |1 egjlantlnel, ^ud droom., 

Wasted around || their rich per/wme ; 

The birch trees wept J in fragrant balm^ 

The aspen slept | beneath the calm ; 

The silver light, |1 with quilvSring glance^ 

Played on ] the water's || still expanse, — 

Wild were ] the heart whose passion's sway 

Could rage beneath the sober ray .^" 
It will be observed that the csesural pause usually occurs in the middle 
of the verae, between the second and third foot. It will also be seen from 
this example, that this species of verse admits the same secondary or substi- 
tuted feet, as the species which we have been considering. This kind of 
verse also admits occasional double rhymes, and, of course, an additional 
weak syllable. Example : 

"Exul|ting, tremjblling, ragjing, /ami!]wt^. 
Possessed beyond the Muse's painting.'" 

(43) Describe the Iambic tetrameters with consecutive and with alternate rhymes. 
Copy the examples and apply a scale of scansion to each vei-se. 



570 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [§ 161. 

Tlie following stanzas afford examples of this kind of measure 
with alternate rhymes. 

" "With listless look || along the plain^ 

I see Tweed's silver current glide^ 
And coldly mark || the holj/ane 

Of Melrose rise \\ in ruined pride. 
The quiet lake, I the balmy air, 

The hill, the stream, || the tower, the tree, — 
Are they still such J! as once they tcere, 

Or is the dreary f change in me ?" 

" When coldness wraps this suffering clay, 
Ah, whither strays the immortal mind? 
It cannot die, it cannot stay, 

But leaves its darkened dust behind. 

Above or Love, Hope, Hate, or Fear, 

It lives all passionless and 2>ure : 
An age shall fleet like earthly year. 

Its years as moments shall en^Zwr^." 

(44) This verse is often alternated with an iambic veese of theee 
MEASUEES, which some, regardless of the frowns of classical proso- 
dians, who have given the name to an iambic verse of six measures, 
have ventured to call Iambic Trimeter. We give an example : 

" How lightly mounts || the muse's wing, 
Whose theme || is in the skies — 
Like morning larks, | that sweeter sing 
The nearer Heaven \ they rise.''' 

(45) There is another stanza which in the third verse only has four 
measures, and in the first, second and fourth, three measures. Ex- 
ample : 

" Behold the Sun, how hrigJit 
From yonder East he springs. 
As if the soul of life and liglit 
Were breathing from his wings.'''' 

Note. — In psalmody stanzas of four tetrameters (eight syllables) are eom- 

(44) Describe a stanza formed of four and three measure iambics, 

(45) Describe another similarly formed. Exhibit the scansion of both in writing. 



§ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 6*71 

monlj called long metre. The rhymes are sometimes alternate, sometimes 
consecutive, and sometimes there is no rhyme. 

Stanzas consisting of alternate tetrameters and trimeters are called com- 
mon metre. In these the rhymes are often confined to the second and fourth 
verse, in which case the verses are sometimes printed as consecutive verses 
of seven measures each. 

Stanzas consisting of three trimeters, with a tetrameter for the third 
verse, are called short metre. 

"We have already noticed the Alexandrhie verse, consisting of six iambic 
measures. This is now only used in connection with other verses, as in the 
Spenserian stanza. Iambic verses of two measures, and even of a single 
measure with an additional weak syllable (and consequently double rhyme), 
are sometimes found connected with longer verses in odes formed of verses 
of varying length. 

(46) Anap^stic veese. — "We give specimens of the two kinds of 
anapaestic verse which occur most frequently in our poetry. It will 
be observed that as iambic verse freely admits the anapsest, so ana- 
paestic verse admits the iambus, especially in the first measure of tho 
verse. The following may be called AnapcEstic Tetrameter. 

" At the close | of the day, I when the hamjlet is still 
And mOr]tals the sweets \ of forget [fulness jprc^e, 

When naught | but the tor] rent f is heard | on the Mil., 
And naught | but the nightjingale's || song ] in the grove ; 

'Twas thus ! | by the cave I of the mounltain a/«r, 

"While his harp | rung symphonlious, U a herjmit h^gan ; 

No more | with himself, I or wHth najture at war.^ 

- He thought as a sage, 1| though he felt as a manP 

The following is an example of Anapcestic Trimeter : 
" I am mon larch of all | I surve?/. 

My right j there is none | to dispute ; 
From the centre 1 all round to the sea., 
I am lord of the fowl and the drute.''^ 

Iambuses and anap^sts are often intermingled in the same verse 
with pleasing effect. Example : 

" The sumlmer is comjing, || on soft 1 winds borne, 
Ye may press ] the grape, f ye may bind 1 the corn. 
For me | I depart Ij to a br^ghtjer shore, 
Ye are marked \ by care, | ye are mine i no more. 

(46) Write out the specimens of anapsstic measure, and give an analysis of the feet. 
The same with the mixed tetrameter. 



6*72 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [§ 161. 

I go I where the loved | who have left 1 you dwell, 

And the flowers 1 are not Death's — 1| fare ye well, | fare-well." 

There are many sweet specimens of these mixed tetrameters in the 
poems of Mrs. Hemans. 

Trochaic yeese. — (47) It will be noticed that a verse consisting 
of complete trochaic measures must end in a weak syllable. A verse 
thus ending admits of none but a double rhyme, since every rhyme 
must, as we have seen, rest on a strong syllable. Hence in the tro- 
chaic verses which most frequently occur in our poetry, the last 
trochee is curtailed, or, if you please, a strong syllable is added. Some 
complete measures occur with double rhymes. We submit specimens 
of the forms which are most common in our poetry. Trochaic measure 
is almost exclusively confined to lyrical poetry — songs, odes, &c. We 
give only such forms as occur as continuous verses, not those short 
verses of two measures or less which occur in longer odes consisting 
of verses of various lengths. Example of Trochaic verse of three 
measures with double rhymes, and two measures with additional 
strong syllable. 

" Then should [ music, \ stealing 
All the I soul of 1 feeling^ 
To thy I heart ^^{pealing^ 

Draw one ] tear from | thee ; 
Then let ] memory ] 'bring thee^ 
Strains I 1 used to ] sing thee^ 
Oh ! then \ rememlber we." 

The last verse here is iambic, the fourth a trochaic dimeter (two-measure 
foot) with an additional strong syllable, or a trimeter wanting a syllable, 
the other verses are trimeter trochaics with double rhymes. 

We next give an example of Trochaic verses consisting of four 
measures (Trochaic Tetrameters), having of course double rhymes, 
with alternate verses of three measures, and an additional strong syl- 
lable to sustain the single rhyme. 

" Every j season ] hath its ] pleasures ; 

Spring may | boast her j flOwery [ prime^ 
Yet the ] vineyard's j ruby | treasures 

Brighten ] autumn's | soberer 1 time.'''' 
" They by 1 parks and \ lodges going^ 

See the lordly castles stand : 

(47) "Write the several specimens of Trochaic verse; describe and analyze them. 



§161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. STS 

Summer woods, about them Mowing^ 
Made a murmur in the land^ 

It maj be noticed in the second and fourth Hnes above, that the trochee 
admits the dactyle in its place, as the iambus interchanges with the ana- 
paest. The interchange in both cases is easy and natural, being between 
measures of similar movement Some would read the feet which we have 
marked dactyles as trochees, making "flowery" and "soberer" words of 
two syllables. Such coarse pronounciation is far from improving the rhythm 
of the verse, and we think offends good taste. 

See more examples of this species of verse, in Pope's beautiful ode, com- 
mencing thus : 

"Vital spark of heavenly \Jldme, 
Quit, oh quit, this mortal frame : 
Trembling, hoping, lingering, \ flying — 
Oh, the pain, the bliss of dying r 
And in Tennyson's " Lord of Burleigh." 

Example of four trochaic measures with an additional strong 
syllable, and of five trochaic measures with double rhymes: 
" Then melthotight I | heard a [ hollow 1 sound^ 
Gathering ] up from all the lower ground. 
Narrowing ] in to where they sat assembled, 
Low vOlluptuoiis I music winding tremhled,'''' &c. 

Verses of this and the following forms are rare in our poetry. 
Example of six measures : 
"On h 1 mountain, ] stretched bS|neath k \ hoary | willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling dillow^ 

There are examples in Mr, Tennyson's poems of trochaic verses of seven 
measures, and his " Locksley Hall " is written in verse of seven trochaic 
measures with an additional strong syllable. Example : 

" Yet 1 1 doubt not | through the [ ages | one in [creasing [ purpose [ runs, 
And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns." 

Dactylic measures. — (48) Dactylic measures are very rare in our 
language; so much so that we doubt the propriety of giving them the 
rank of a separate class. Single dactyles are often substituted with 
good effect for trochaic, and also for iambic measures ; but there are 
few specimens of English verse in which this measure so predominates 
as to render the name dactylic appropriate. In the following example 



(48) Kepeat what is said of dactylic measures, and write and give the analysis of the ex- 
amples. 



574 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [§ 161. 

we have three dactylic measures with an additional strong syllable to 
support the rhyme : 

" Erin, the [ tear and the | smile in thine ] eyes^ 
Blend like the rainbow that hangs in thy shies!'''' 

The first and the third verses in the following stanza consist each 
of three dactyles with an additional strong and weak syllable, or of 
four dactyles wanting one syllable in the fourth measure. 
" Where are the ] joys I have |1 met in the 1 morning, 
That danced 1 to the lark's 1 early sOng ? 
Where is the [ peace that a|waited my [ wandering, 
At evening the wild woods among ?" 

" Is it that summer's forsaken our vaUey, 
And grim surly winter is near f 
No, no ! the bees' humming round the gay roses, 
Proclaim it the pride of the yearP 

These verses ought to have double rhymes. Burns has substituted single 
rhymes. Could he have found double rhymes, in accordance with the gen- 
eral law of rhymes, it would have added much to the melody of the verse. 
The single rhymes falling on weak syllables, it will be seen by contrasting 
them with the rhymes in the alternate anapaestic verses, are almost imper- 
ceptible. The poet seems to have felt this, for in all the stanzas, except the 
first, he has left the dactylic verses without rhyme. 

We may subjoin the following examples for analysis : 
" Merrily, merrily shall I live now. 

Under the blossom that hangs on the bough." 
" Warriors or chiefs, should the shaft or the sword 
Pierce me in leading the host of the Lord, 
Heed not the corpse, though a king's in your path, 
Bury your steel in the bosoms of Gath." — Byeon. 

" Hail to the chief who in triumph advances ! 
Honored and blessed be the ever green ^in<s ! 
Long may the tree in his banner that glances 
Flourish, the shelter and grace of our line .^" 



THE END. 



D. Appleton & Co.^s Educational Puhlicaiions. 
PROF. ED'WARD C. MARSHALL. 

Book of Oratory ; 

A New Collection of Extracts in Prose, Poetry, and Dialogue : contain- 
ing Selections from Distinguished American and English Orators, Di- 
vines, and Poets, of which many are Specimens of the Eloquence of 
Statesmen of the Present Day. For the Use of Colleges, Academies, 
and Schools. One vol. 12mo., of 500 pages. $1. 

This work contains a larger number of elegant extracts than any similar one, from 
the first American and English Authors, among whom are Webster, Clay, Everett, Cal- 
houn, Wirt, Randolph, Prentiss, Channing, Dewey, Burke, BrougTiam, Shakspeare, By- 
ron, Scott, Hood, Bryant, and Longfellow, together with a complete digest of specimens 
of the oratory and poetry of all parts of the Union. 

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 

" A large and admirable selection of pieces for declamation, copious and varied, and 
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least among modern writers in prose, verse, and drama. They make a spirited collec- 
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PROF. BD^WARD C. MARSHALL. 

The First Book of Oratory, 



One volume 12mo. Price 62 cents. 
4 



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schools. Irs ' - - - iidltioBS for 

rhi- c-v — . -r_^ ._r :a be esecuT 



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; -liolsrs. xrom. the •; 
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-O^S-S, C-E. 








' 




V _ - _ -.-„^ esamination 


of 


^^EeM'5ET 


idisri : 


r.;::: :7i^-/' ; ;-:.- ;- 


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■" -7^7- Tr:ir :^ ^^ 




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Chapkim and " - 


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MUitary Academy, 


IFs^Pora^ 


14 













D. Appleton & Col's Educational Publications. 
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In Numbers, complete, price $1 75 ; bound, |2 25. 

ELEMENTAEY DEAWING CAEDS. Landscape, 12 Lessons ; Animals, 12 Lessens. 
Price, each sot, 25 cents, 

15 



D. Appleton & Co.^s Educational Publications. 
PROP. S. CHASB. 

A Treatise on Algebra, 

For the Use of Schools and Colleges. 12mo. Price $1. 

♦' The Treatise which Prof. Chase has written for the use of schools and colleges, 
seems to us to be superior in not a few respects to the school Algebras in common use. 
The object of the writer was, "to exhibit such a view of the principles of Algebra, as 
sliall best prepare the student for the further pursuit of mathematical studies." "He has, 
we tliink, succeeded in this attempt. His book is more complete in its explanations of 
the principles of Algebra than any text-book with which we are acquainted. The ex- 
amples for practice are pertinent, and are sufficiently numerous for the illustration of 
each rule. 

" Mr. C. has avoided, by his plan, the common fault of text-books on Algebra — use- 
lessly numerous examples, and meagi'eness of explanation as respects the principles of 
the science. The order of treatment is judicious. Mr. C. has added a table otformulcB, 
for convenience of reference, in which are brought into one view the principles exhi- 
bited in different parts of the book. It will be of gi-eat use to the student. "We think 
the book is well adapted to schools and colleges, into many of which it will, no doubt, 
be introduced."— (7/i. Recorder. 



PROP. ALPHSUS CROSBY. 

First Lessons in Geometry, 

Upon the Model of Colburn's First Lessons in Arithmetic. Price 87i 
cents. 

This little work is admitted to be the best elementary text-book on the subject, and 
is very extensively introduced. 



R. G. BURNHAM, M. A. 

Arithmetic for Common Schools & Academies. 

PART FIEST is a work on Mental Akithmetic. The philosophy of the mode of 
teaching adopted in this work is: Commence where the child commences, and proceed 
as the child proceeds; fall in with his own mode of arriving at ti-uth; aid him to think 
for himself, and do not the thinking for him. Hence a series of exercises are given, by 
which the child is made familiar with the process, which he has already gone through 
with in acquiring his present knowledge. These exercises interest the 'child, and pre- 
pare liim for future rapid progress. The plan is so clearly unfolded by illustration and 
example, that he who followsit can scarcely fail to secure, on the part of his pupils, a 
thorough knowledge of the subject. Price 20 cents. 

PART SECOND is a work on "SVpaTXEN Arithmetic. It is the result of a Ion? ex- 
perience in teaching, and contains sufficient of Arithmetic for the practical business 
purposes of life. It "illustrates more fully and applies more extendedly and practically 
the principle of Cancellation than any other Arithmetical treatise. This method as here 
employed in connection with the ordinary, furnishes a variety of illustrations, which 
cannot fail to interest and instruct the scholar. It is a prominent idea throughout, to 
impress upon the mind of the scholar the truth that he will never discover, nor need a 
new principle beyond the simple rules. The pupil is shown, by a variety of new modes 
of illustration, that new names and new positions introduce no new jirinciple, but that 
they are merely matters of convenience. Fractions are treated and explained the same as 
whole numbers. Formulas are also given for drilling the scholar upon the Blackboard, 
which will be found of service to many teachers of Common Schools. Price 50 cents. 

ALBERT D. /WRIGHT. 

Primary Lessons ; 

Being a Speller and Eeader, on an Original Plan ; in which One Letter 
is taught at a Lesson, with its Power ; an application being immediately 
made, in Words, of each Letter thus Learned, and those Words being 
direct! V arranged into Eoading Lessons. Fiiee 1-i-i- cents 
16 



D. Appleton & Co.''s Educational Publications. 
EDWARD L. ITOUMANS. 

A Class- Book of Ghemistry ; 

In which the Principles of the Science are Familiarly Explained and 
Applied to the Arts, Agriculture, Physiology, Dietetics, Ventilation, 
and the most Important Phenomena of Nature. Designed for the Uso 
of Academies and Schools, and for Popular Eeadiug. 12mo. 75 cents. 

"No attempt has been made to popularize this important science, and to place it on 
the same favorable basis with geography and astronomy ; hence, the idea is prevalent 
that chemistry is one of those dry and difficult subjects which belong exclusively to 
professors and lecturers, and which can not be successfully taught as a branch of com* 
mon education. In the treatise now before us we are shown that the fundamental laws 
of chemistry are as definite, as clear and simple, and as capable of being understood by 
juvenile minds, as those of numbers, which are taught in every school. 

" We regard this new Class-Book of Chemistry as one of the most valuable text- 
books that has been prepared for schools during many years. A knowledge of the sci- 
ence of which it treats is of great importance to every one, and is daily becoming more 
and more popular. This work popularizes to a greater extent than any other we have 
ever seen on this subject, and renders interesting to the minds of pupils, as well as to the 
general reader, one of the most useful of sciences. 

" A peculiar and valuable feature of this treatise is its application of chemistry to the 
common occurrences of life, and its treating of familiar things, and presenting facts and 
truths alike valuable and entertaining, in a st5de free, as far as possible, from technicali- 
ties on the one hand, and puerilities on the other." — Student. 

" An elementary work on Chemistry well adapted to either purpose, of aiding in the 
initiatory step towards a profound study of the science, or of giving that general know- 
ledge deemed essential in ordinary education. No better illustration could be given of 
the progi'ess of the science of Chemistry in these later years than the fulness of informa- 
tion in this elementary book on Organic and Animal Chemistry, branches of the science 
which but a few years ago were as sealed books even to the chemical philosophers them- 
selves. The book is clear and demonstrative in style, and easily intelligible to tiie be- 
ginner and general reader." — Tribmie. 



EDWARD L. YOUMANS. 

A Chart of Chemistry ; 

In which the Fundamental Laws and Facts of the Science, Affinity, the 
Composition and Decomposition of Bodies, combining Equivalents or 
Definite and Multiple Proportions, the Atomic Theory, Crystallization, 
Fermentation, Isomerism, the Nomenclature and Formulse, are Illus- 
trated to the eye in a clear and simple manner. 

*^* This Chart, which is adapted to the above Class-Book, is nearly four feet by five 
in size, and contains about one thousand diagrams, in sixteen different colors. That it 
may be brought within the reach of every school, it is sold at the low price of five dol- 
lars being the cheapest Chart, considering its cost, that is published in the United 
States, 

The following distinguished Chem/sts and Educators have highly commended this 
Chart as a valuable auxiliary to all Students : — 

Professors B. L. Silliman, Jas. R. Chilton, John W. Draper, Jas. B. Eogers, "W. H. 
Hopkins, John Torrey, "W. H, EUett, Thos. Antisell, Gray, Hon. Horace Mann, Supt. 
McKeen, N. Y. City, Supt. S. S. Randall, Albany, Supt. T. L. Holmes, Brooklyn, Geo. 
B. Emerson, Boston, &c.j &g. 
17 



B. Appleton & Goh EducoMonal Piiblicaiions. 
OLLENDORFF. 

Yeiu Metliod of Learning to Read, Write, and 

S]}eak the French Language: witli an Appendix, containing tlie Cardinal 
and Ordinal Kumbers, and full Paradigms of the Eegular and Irregu- 
lar, Auxiliary, Eeflective, and Impersonal Verbs. By J. L. Jewett. 
One volume 12mo. 01. 
^W A Key to the Exekcises, in a separate volume. 75 cents. 

•*Xe\v Method of LEAE^^^'G- the Feexch LiXGrA&E. — Tliis Grammar must su- 
pei"sede all others now used for instrnction in the French language. Its conception and 
arrangement are admirable. — the work evidently of a mind familiar -uith the deficiencies 
of the' systems, the place of which it is designed to supply. In all the works of the kind 
that have fallen under onr notice, there has been so much left unexplaineC or obscure, 
and so many things have been omitted — trifles, perhaps, in the estimation ot the author, 
but the cause of great embarrassment to the learner — that they have been comparatively 
valueless as self-instructors. The student, deceived by their' specious pretensions, has 
not proceeded far before he has felt himself in a condition similar to that of a mariner 
who should put out to sea without a compass to direct him. He has encountered diffi- 
culty after difficulty, to which his Grammar afl'orded no clue; when, disappointed and 
discouraged, he has either abandoned the study in disgust, or if his means permitted, 
has resorted to a teacher to accomplish what it was not ii^ his power to effect by the aid 
of his ' self-instructor.' 

" Ollendorff' has passed his roller over the whole field of French instruction, and the 
rugged inequalities formerly to be encountered, no longer discourage the learner. "What 
were the difficulties of the language, are here mastered in succession ; and the only sur- 
prise of the student, as he passes from lesson to lesson, is, that he meets none of "these 
'lions in the way.' 

'•The value of the work has been greatly enhanced by a carefol revision, and the 
addition of an appendix containing matter essential to its completeness either as a book 
for the use of teachers or for seh'-instruction." — Xexc-York Commercial Advertiser, 



OLLSNBORFF. 

Netu Method of Learning to Bead, Write, and 

Speah the French Language : ■with the Lessons divided into Sections of 
a Proper Length for Daily Tasks, and numerous Corrections, Additions, 
and Improvements, suitable for this country, by Y. Value ; to "n^Mch is 
added Value's System of French Pronunciation ; his Grammatical Sy- 
nopsis ; a New Index, and Short Models of Commercial Correspond- 
ence. One volume 12mo. Price $1. 
^^° A Ket to the Exeeckes, in a separate volume. 75 cents. 

"Mr. Value has taught practically Ollendorff's system for many years, and has be- 
stowed much thought and labor on the improvement of this edition" The longer les- 
sons have been judiciously subdivided ; much attention has been bestowed upon the 
arrangement of the exercises relating to the subjunctive mood : besides the system of 

E renunciation, we have an excellent grammatical synopsis, which appears to us, on a 
rief examination, very happily constructed and of great value. In his preface the au- 
thor mentions several minute corrections made in this edition, which show the care and 
accuracy bestowed upon it" — Churchman. 
'•Messes, D. Appletox & Co.: — 
•• Gentlemen, 

'•I have carefully perused your new edition of Ollendorff by Mr. Value, and find 
it contains all the improvements "the original work so much required. It is evidently 
the result of long research, time, and labor, founded upon experience and a thorough 
knowledge of the system, and in my estimation far superior lo any work of the kind 
which I have yet met with, I intend adopting the use of it in my classes. 
" Tours, respectfullv, 

" J. EOEMEE, 
•' Professor of the French Language in the N". Y. Free Acadrmv.'' 
18 



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